Abstract
The second chapter analyzes Russian educational policies since the fall of the Soviet Union and discusses the ways in which school education was used by federal and regional actors to advance competing projects of belonging. Central to post-Soviet developments in the sphere of education is the tension between two main tendencies, referred to as regionalization and centralization. This chapter introduces the reader to the Republic of Tatarstan and its project of sovereignization and ethno-cultural revitalization, as it was implemented in public education. It continues with an overview of recent Russian educational developments under the presidency of Putin, such as the elimination of the regional component, the introduction of the new federal education standards and the Unified State Examination, as well as the most recent (2017–2018) regulations concerning the teaching of regional languages in schools.
There were times when we played
‘sovereignty games’, now they are over
—From a conversation with the principal of one of the town’s schools
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Notes
- 1.
With the term “regional governments” I refer to the governments of constituent units of the Russian Federation, including republics, oblast, krai, and so on.
- 2.
Federal Law on Education of the Russian Federation, 10 July 1992, available at: http://www.consultant.ru/popular/edu/, last accessed 25 March 2019.
- 3.
The federal component of the curriculum was provided by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation to regional ministries in the form of so-called basic school curricula (basoviye uchebniye plany). It included subjects such as mathematics, physics, geography, the history of Russia, Russian language and literature, and foreign languages. Schools could choose different options from among these basic school curricula, adding regional components and components particular to the schools to them. The final school curriculum then had to be approved by the regional ministry of education.
- 4.
The school administration had to decide together with parents on the content of the school component of the curriculum.
- 5.
For example, 20 percent of the geography course could be dedicated to the geography of the local area or the region.
- 6.
Whereas all textbooks of the federal component were to be produced in Moscow by specialized publishing houses and had to be approved by the federal Ministry of Education.
- 7.
One of the examples is the textbook by Danilov and Kosulina The History of the State and peoples of Russia (Danilov & Kosulina, 2004).
- 8.
The problem of the representations of history in school textbooks, and the differences between representations of the same events in the regionally produced and federally produced textbooks, is a topic which deserves special investigation. Shnirelman (2009) has discussed this subject in relation to the history of the Caucasus. For Tatarstan see Bilz, 2007; Gibatdinov, 2003.
- 9.
Vladimir Tishkov, a well-known Russian anthropologist and Minister of Nationalities under President Yeltsin, was the most prominent advocate of the idea of Russians (rossiyane) as a political community.
- 10.
Tatars as well as other non-Christian people (e.g. with the exception of “serving Tatars” who were on the service of the Tsar as interpreters) were forbidden to settle along the rivers and in the cities, as well as prohibited from working as goldsmiths (Gilyazov & Izmailov, 2014).
- 11.
Tatars are estimated to constitute around 5.5 million people, or 3.6% of Russia’s total population. Results of the census from 2010. Available online: http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm. In the Soviet Union, Tatars (with 6.6 million people) constituted the fifth largest ethnicity, coming directly after the Uzbeks (Grenoble, 2003).
- 12.
Another region with a significant Tatar population (around 1 million) is the neighboring Republic of Bashkortostan.
- 13.
Most populous groups are the Chuvash, Udmurts, Mordvins (Mordva ), Mari and Ukrainians.
- 14.
The official historiographic version in Tatarstan sees Kriashen as descendants of Tatars who were Christianized by the Russian Orthodox Church after the Russian conquest of Kazan Khanate in the middle of the sixteenth century. A number of Kriashen cultural organizations however claim that Kriashen are a separate ethnic group that was Christian before Kazan became part of the Russian Empire (A. Kefeli, 1997; Werth, 2002).
- 15.
In 2004, by means of a special decree, the State Duma prohibited the official languages of republics from being based on alphabets other than Cyrillic. See Suleymanova, 2010.
- 16.
Only Tatars and Baskhirs received instruction in their own language for the entire duration of their secondary education (Silver, 1974, p. 30) and such schools were more common in rural areas than in cities.
- 17.
Thus, ideally, Tatar language lessons would have been taught five hours a week. However, schools had certain mechanisms that enabled them to increase or curtail the number of curriculum hours spent on particular subjects. This was made possible by implementing the school component of the curriculum. Thus, if they wished to introduce additional subjects or increase the amount of hours spent for the subjects of the federal component, they could do this using hours allotted to the basic school curriculum. Thus, in the upper grades, Tatar language lessons often became less frequent, as was the case in both the Russian-medium and the Tatar-medium school in the town of my research.
- 18.
In contrast to European-style gymnasia, the term “gimnaziya” in Russian refers to comprehensive schools that provide the whole cycle of school education (elementary, secondary and complete secondary).
- 19.
A special class of these innovative types of schools were the so-called Tatar-Turkish lyceums which allegedly were run by the members of the Gülen movement. Tatar-Turkish lyceums were opened in several cities of Tatarstan and enjoyed a very good reputation. However, at the beginning of the 2000s, Russian authorities accused these lyceums of pursuing a hidden Islamist agenda and expelled all of the Turkish teachers from the schools.
- 20.
As the study by Mukhariamova et al. (2004) has shown, the option of sitting the entrance examination in Tatar was not frequently used.
- 21.
Source: http://mon.tatarstan.ru/rus/razvitie-natsionalnogo-obrazovaniya-v-respublike.htm (last accessed March 20, 2019). The official statistics provided by the Ministry of Education of Tatarstan should be taken with caution as in many officially bilingual and even Tatar-medium schools instruction was predominantly in Russian.
- 22.
These reforms include bringing the various republics’ constitutions into compliance with the federal one, cancelling the direct election of regional governors (2004) and prohibiting the use of the designation “president” for the executive heads of republics (2010), among other things. They have effectively eradicated various autonomous powers that regional governments acquired during the period of sovereignization (Goode, 2011).
- 23.
As Prina (2015) asserts, in other regions this law has been adopted with far less opposition.
- 24.
This amendment conflicted with the republic’s constitution, which mandated equal time to be spent on the teaching of Russian and Tatar languages in schools in Tatarstan.
- 25.
By that time Artemenko was the head of the Centre on Ethnocultural Strategy of Education at the Federal Institute for Education Development.
- 26.
Artemenko also stated that as a result of this “separation”, 70% of school children in Tatarstan allegedly did not feel that they were citizens of Russia—a statement that provoked strong criticism in Tatarstan. See Stenogramma, 2008.
- 27.
As a compromise toward the second official language of the republics, the new education standard stated that the teaching of native, non-Russian languages could be included in the mandatory part of the school curriculum in those constituent units of the Russian Federation where the teaching of regional languages was endorsed by the regional legislation (Ministry of Education and Sciences of the Russian Federation, 2010).
- 28.
The fourth variant of the curriculum was actually intended for schools where the language of instruction was a language other than Russian.
- 29.
Usually at the end of the academic year and no more than ten academic hours per academic year.
- 30.
The introduction of the USE has been a highly contentious topic. As observers have admitted, it merely relocated corruption to schools and negatively affected the academic performance and critical thinking skills of pupils because of its exclusive focus on providing the right answers and getting the highest possible score. For more on the consequences of the introduction of the USE in regions, see Luk’yanova, 2012.
- 31.
Since Tatar—or any other minority language—was not included in testing by the USE, the Republic of Tatarstan has developed its own Unified Republican Examination which tested the knowledge of Tatar or other native, non-Russian languages (Zamyatin, 2012b). This test was however an optional one and was taken only by a handful of pupils.
- 32.
In 2008–2009, there were officially 1098 Tatar-language schools in Tatarstan, in 2009–2010 there were 1061 and in 2012–2013, their number had dropped to 854. See also, for example, “V Tatarstane sokratilos” kolichestvo tatarskikh shkol’, Chelninskiye Izvestiya, 20 March 2013, available at: http://www.chelny-izvest.ru/education/18221.html, accessed 20 March 2019. A well-known Tatar nationalist organization, the All-Tatar Public Center (vsetatarskii obshchetvennyi tsentr), issued a declaration on the status of the Tatar language in the republic, claiming that 699 Tatar schools had been closed in Tatarstan since the beginning of the 2000s. See “VTOTs predlagaet sdelat” tatarskii yazyk edinstvennym gosudarstvennym v Tatarstane’, Idel.Realii, 17 January 2017, available at: https://www.idelreal.org/a/28238714.html, accessed 20 March 2019. In August 2017 a criminal investigation was launched against the All-Tatar Public Center on accusation of extremism.
- 33.
The so-called malokomplektnye shkoly were subject to a series of reforms, implemented since 2005–2006 that changed the structure of federal funding of budget institutions such as schools (their funding being dependent on the number of pupils enrolled) leading to the closure of small rural schools across Russia with children having to enroll into larger schools, sometimes quite distant from their place of residence.
- 34.
After the rejection of the case, Kamalova submitted it to the European Court of Human Rights. No further information on the case could be obtained by the author.
- 35.
The form that this resistance took place at my field-site is elaborated upon in Chap. 4.
- 36.
In Tatarstan, the results of the USE for the Russian language were even higher than the national average (Lubimova, 2011). Opponents explain this as a result of the extensive extracurricular tutoring that parents in Tatarstan are forced to resort to.
- 37.
‘Putin: zastavlyat’ cheloveka uchit’ yazyk, kotoryi dlya nego rodnym ne yavlyaetsya, nedopustimo’ (Putin: it is unacceptable to force a person to learn a language which is not his native language), Idel.Realii, 20 July 2017, available at: https://www.idelreal.org/a/28628963.html, accessed 18 November 2017.
- 38.
‘Dozhivet li tatarskii yazyk do ponedel’nika?’ (Will Tatar language survive until Monday?), Business-Online, 19 October 2017, available at: https://www.business-gazeta.ru/article/361187, accessed 18 November 2017.
- 39.
Rustem Minnikhanov: tatarskii yazyk budet prepodavat’sya dva chasa v nedelu’ (Rustem Minnikhanov: Tatar language will be taught two hours per week), Idel.Realii, 8 November 2017, available at: https://www.idelreal.org/a/28841739.html, accessed 18 November 2017.
- 40.
‘V shkolakh Tatarstana otmenili obyazatel’noe izuchenie tatarskogo yazyika’ (Tatar language lessons ceased to be compulsory in schools in Tatarstan), Business-Online, 29 November 2017, available at: https://www.business-gazeta.ru/news/365340, accessed 20 December 2017.
- 41.
“Pereshli na russkiy yazik: kak uchitelya tatarskogo perejili sokrashchenie uchebnykh chasov” (Retrained to teach Russian language: how teachers of the Tatar language have survived the reduction of their teaching load), sntat, September 12, 2018, https://sntat.ru/obrazovanie/pereshli-na-russkiy-yazyk-kak-uchitelya-tatarskogo-perezhili-sokrashch/ (last accessed June 15, 2019).
- 42.
Federal law from August 3, 2018. “O vnesenii izmenenii v statii 11 i 14 federal’nogo zakona “Ob obrazovanii v Rossiiskoi Federatsii” (On introducing amendments to the articles 11 and 14 in the “Law on education of the Russian Federation”). http://base.garant.ru/72005580/ (last accessed 15 June 2019).
- 43.
During my fieldwork, in one of the administrative districts in Tatarstan several conventional public schools have been reorganized into cadet schools (without any prior consultations with parents).
- 44.
Thus, Payne quotes Putin: “Assurance of the Russian Federation’s national security also includes protecting the cultural and spiritual-moral legacy and the historical traditions and standards of public life, and preserving the cultural heritage of all Russia’s peoples. There must be a state policy to maintain the population’s spiritual and moral welfare, prohibit the use of airtime to promote violence or base instincts, and counter the adverse impact of foreign religious organizations and missionaries” (Payne, 2010, p. 2)
- 45.
According to the 1997 Law on Religious Freedom of the Russian Federation, along with Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism are included in the traditional religions of Russia.
- 46.
Ob uchebnom kurse “Osnovy religiozhykh kultur i svetskoi etiki” (On the school subject “The fundamentals of religious cultures and secular ethic”), Izdatelstvo Prosveshchenie. http://old.prosv.ru/umk/ork/info.aspx?ob_no=20402, last accessed March 15, 2019.
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Suleymanova, D. (2020). Producing the Citizen: Political Dynamics of Education in Post-Soviet Russia. In: Pedagogies of Culture. Anthropological Studies of Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27245-6_2
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