The Islamic Idea of Nature

Bacik, Gokhan

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25901-3_3

The Islamic Idea of Nature

Gokhan Bacik²

Chapter
First Online: 25 August 2019

218 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter explains the contending narratives of nature within the Islamic theological tradition. The chapter defines a religious idea of nature as the collection of theological propositions about how nature works that Muslims acquire in their religious socialization. However, those propositions are expounded in an immense body of literature. Therefore, the chapter first systematizes them in a plain and consistent framework. Accordingly, the Islamic idea of nature is examined in terms of four major constitutive elements: causality, free will, knowledge, and the concept of God. Then, the chapter explains these four topics according to the Ash‘ari, the Maturidi, and the Mu‘tazili schools of theology.

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Notes

1.
Ak, Selçuklular Döneminde Maturidilik, 54.
2.
Ormsby, Ghazali, 27. The Nishapur Madrasa was founded by the Seljuqs in al-Juwayni’s name. al-Jawzi, Mir‘at al-zaman, 135.
3.
Arjomand, “The Law, Agency, and Policy,” 269–270. Berkey, “Madrasas Medieval and Modern,” 43.
4.
Khalidi, Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period, 192.
5.
Miura, Dynamism in the Urban Society of Damascus, 13
6.
Strange, Baghdad During the Abbasid Caliphate, 298–299.
7.
Brown, The Canonization of Al Bukhari and Muslim, 4. Also see: al-Athir, The Annals of the Saljuq Turks, 257.
8.
Safi, The Politics of Knowledge in Premodern Islam, xxiii–xxv.
9.
Makdisi, “Muslim Institutions of Learning,” 3. And see: Makdisi, “Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages,” 263.
10.
Hourani, Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, 57.
11.
Elder, “Introduction,” ix.
12.
Makdisi, “Ash‘ari and the Ash‘arites in Islamic Religious History I,” 80.
13.
Schacht, “New Sources for the History of Muhammadan Theology,” 35.
14.
Kaminski, The Contemporary Islamic Governed State, 40.
15.
Goodman, “Ghazali’s Argument from Creation. (I),” 69.
16.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 33–34.
17.
Frank, Creation and the Cosmic System, 22.
18.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 35.
19.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, 226.
20.
al-Ghazali, Deliverance From Error, 37.
21.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, 58.
22.
Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 9.
23.
Ali, “Al-Ghazali and Schopenhauer,” 410.
24.
al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, 38.
25.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 38.
26.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of Philosophers, 22–35.
27.
Pyle, Atomism and Its Critics, 210.
28.
Sorabji. Time, Creation and the Continuum, 297.
29.
Frank, Creation and the Cosmic System, 23.
30.
Post, “The Problem of Atomism,” 19.
31.
Glasner, Averroes’ Physics, 66, 172.
32.
Frede, “Stoic Determinism,” 187.
33.
Meyer, “Chain of Causes,” 80–84. Also see: Strange, “The Stoics on the Voluntariness of the Passions,” 38.
34.
Bergh, “Ghazali on “Gratitude Towards God”,” 77.
35.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 291.
36.
Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy, 217.
37.
Murdoch, “Beyond Aristotle,” 19–25.
38.
Fakhry, Islamic Occasionalism and Its Critique, 9.
39.
Ibrahim, “Fah‿r ad-Din ar-Razi, Ibn al-Haytam and Aristotelian Science,” 381–382.
40.
Fakhry, Al-Farabi, 220.
41.
Moad, “Al-Ghazali’s Occasionalism,” 1. Giacaman and Bahlul, “Ghazali on Miracles,” 41–42.
42.
al-Ghazali, Moderation in Belief, 279–315. al-Razi, Ilm al-Akhlaq, 69.
43.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of Philosophers, 166.
44.
Remes, Neoplatonism, 46. Also see: Daiber, “God versus Causality,” 12.
45.
Dillon and Gerson, Neoplatonic Philosophy, 269.
46.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of Philosophers, 167.
47.
Ibid., 166.
48.
Ibid., 146–147.
49.
Ibid., 167.
50.
Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy, 235.
51.
Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an, 46.
52.
Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy, 167.
53.
There is a revisionist literature on Al-Ghazali. Revisionist views include that: (i) al-Ghazali “combined contingent causality and Occasionalism” (Daiber); (ii) al-Ghazali was in favor of causality and implied quantum physics (Harding); (iii) al-Ghazali was not against the idea of causality (Goodman); and (iv) al-Ghazali held a neutral position on Occasionalism (Moad). See: Daiber, “God versus Causality,” 12. Harding, “Causality Then and Now,” 167. Moad, “Al-Ghazali on Power, Causation, and Acquisition”, 1. Goodman, “Did Al-Ghazali Deny Causality?” 83–120. Alon, “Al-Ghazali on Causality,” 397. Abrahamov, “Al-Ghazali’s Theory of Causality,” 98.
54.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 88. Goodman, “Ghazali’s Argument from Creation (II),” 171.
55.
Ibn Rushd, The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer.
56.
Glasner, Averroes’ Physics, 172.
57.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 88.
58.
Ibid., 90–91.
59.
Ibid., 93–95.
60.
Ibid., 318, 133–134.
61.
Ibn Rushd, Ibn Rushd’s Metaphysics, 61.
62.
Ibid., 89.
63.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 90.
64.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of Philosophers, 56.
65.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 29.
66.
Ibid., 289.
67.
Ibid., 131.
68.
Ibid., 291.
69.
Ibid., 325.
70.
Ibn Rushd, Faith and Reason, 80. Other Muslim Aristotelian scholars had similar ideas on causality. For example, Ibn Bajjah accepted that the general principle of physics could explain nature. A similar position is observable in the work of al-Tusi, who accepted that every motion has a principle. He was very critical even of the idea that God suspended the natural order. Ibn Bajja, ‘Ilm al-Nafs, 19. al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din Tusi’s Memoir on Astronomy, 100.
71.
Muhtaroglu, “Al-Maturidi’s View of Causality,” 4.
72.
Rudolph, Al-Maturidi and the Development of Sunni Theology in Samarqand, 260.
73.
Frank, “Notes and Remarks on the taba‘i,” 138. Also see: Yavuz, “İmam Maturidi’nin Tabiat ve İlliyete Bakışı,” 57.
74.
Bernand, “La critique de la notion de nature (Tab‘) par le Kalam,” 73–74. Dhanani, “Al-Maturidi and Al-Nasafi,” 65–76.
75.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 100–101.
76.
Ibid., 207, 244, 251.
77.
Ibid., 311.
78.
Ibid., 305. al-Maturidi, Te’vilatul-Kur’an Tercümesi I, 288, 296.
79.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 313.
80.
al-Ghazali, Deliverance From Error, 25.
81.
Ibid., 22.
82.
Makdisi, “Ash‘ari and the Ash‘arites in Islamic Religious History II,” 22. Moad, “Comparing Phases of Skepticism,” 89–90. Wohlman, Al-Ghazali, Averroës and the Interpretation of the Qur’an, 33. Also see: Burrell, “The Unknowability of God in Al-Ghazali,” 175.
83.
al-Ghazali, Deliverance From Error, 21–22.
84.
Ibid., 60–62.
85.
Kukkonen, “Al-Ghazali on Error,” 7. Albertini, “Crisis and Certainty of Knowledge,” 4. Davis, “Living in Negligent Ease,” 102–103.
86.
We see here a strong Neoplatonist impact. In Neoplatonism, the idea of visible and invisible worlds is significant in defining other major issues such as knowledge and causality, see: Wisknovsky, “Towards a History of Avicenna’s Distinction,” 58. Frank, Creation and Cosmic, 43. Also see: Bigg, Neoplatonism, 191. Here Bigg wrote: “Plotinus drew a very sharp distinction between the World of Sense and the World of Intelligence”. Also on 194, he wrote that in Neoplatonism, “we are led to believe in the existence of another world higher and better than the world of sense”.
87.
Remes, Neoplatonism, viii, 3.
88.
Alwahaib, “Al-Ghazali and Descartes,” 26.
89.
al-Ghazali, Deliverance From Error, 23.
90.
In The Just Balance, al-Ghazali wrote: “May God protect me from the rules of personal opinion (ra’y) and analogy (qiyas)! These are the rules of the Devil! If one of my friends claims that they are the rules of knowledge, I pray God that He will eliminate evil from his religion, for this is the religion of an ignorant friend, and worse than an intelligent enemy’s”. al-Ghazali, The Just Balance, 2.
91.
al-Ghazali, Deliverance From Error, 65.
92.
Ibid., 23.
93.
al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, 37, 21.
94.
Nakamura, “Imam Ghazali’s Cosmology Reconsidered,” 32.
95.
Similarly, in Neoplatonism, there are limits to rational knowledge so one should go beyond it to get the absolute truth. Rappe, “Self-Knowledge and Subjectivity,” 258. Oosthout, Modes of Knowledge, 28.
96.
Grunebaum, Medieval Islam, 141.
97.
Brown, “The Last Days of Al-Ghazzali,” 104.
98.
Smith, “A-Risalat Al-Laduniyya,” 359.
99.
Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, 94. Karamustafa, “Walaya According to al-Junayd,” 66–68.
100.
Fierro, “The Almohads and the Hafsids,” 69.
101.
Treiger, “Al-Ghazali’s Classification of the Sciences,” 31. As a result of his stance on inner knowledge, al-Ghazali is criticized for being some sort of esoteric. This criticism was echoed even as early as Ibn Tufayl in the twelfth century. Geirdner, “Al-Ghazali’s Mishkat al-Anwar,” 121–153.
102.
Schmidtke, “Theological Rationalism,” 17.
103.
Ghani, “The Concept of Sunna,” 60.
104.
Martin and Woodward with Atmaja, Defenders of Reason in Islam, 90–91.
105.
Yaman, “Small Theological Differences Profound Philosophical Implications,” 181.
106.
Al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 57–58.
107.
Ibid., 61.
108.
al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 53.
109.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 64.
110.
Al-Galli, The Place of Reason, 7. Taftazani, A Commentary on the Creed of Islam, 15.
111.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 309–310. al-Subki, Al-Sayf Al-Mashur, 4.
112.
Bouamrane, Le problème De La liberté Humaine, 10.
113.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 36. al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 102.
114.
al-Ghazali, Council for Kings, 10. Though their views exhibit some nuances, other key names in Ash‘ari thought like Juwayni and Razi also share the classical reserved position on free will. See: Bisar, “Al-Juwani and Al-Ghazali,” 161. Haywood, “Fakhr al-Din al-Razi’s Contribution,” 281. Ceylan, “Theology and Tafsir in the Major Works of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi,” 209.
115.
Griffel, Al-Ghazali’s Philosophical Theology, 125.
116.
Abrahamov, “A Re-Examination of al-Ash’arī’s Theory of “Kasb”,” 220.
117.
al-Ash‘ari, Maqalat al-Islamiyyin, 542.
118.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 56.
119.
Ibid., 43. al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 102.
120.
Frank, Creation and Cosmic, 32. al-Ghazali, Revival of Religious Learnings Vol. 3, 11–12.
121.
Bravmann quoted in Pessagno, “Irada, Ikhtihayar, Qutra,” 178.
122.
Cillis, Free Will and Predestination in Islamic Thought, 14.
123.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 57.
124.
Martin and Woodward with Atmaja, Defenders of Reason in Islam, 25.
125.
Frank, “The Structure of Created Causality,” 30.
126.
Frank, Creation and Cosmic, 36.
127.
Abrahamov, “A Re-Examination of al-Ash‘ari,” 215.
128.
Ibid., 103.
129.
Hourani, Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, 8.
130.
Calverley and Pollock, Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam, 931.
131.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 256.
132.
Shahrastani, Muslim Sects and Divisions, 42.
133.
Martin and Woodward with Atmaja, Defenders of Reason in Islam, 97. Heemskerk, Suffering in the Mu‘tazilite Theology, 36–56.
134.
Cillis, Free Will and Predestination, 11.
135.
Vasalau, Moral Agents and Their Deserts, 2. Dhanani, The Physical Theory of Kalam, 146.
136.
Calverley and Pollock, Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam, 915.
137.
Fakhry, “Some Paradoxical Implications of the Mu’tazilite View of Free Will,” 96.
138.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 458–461.
139.
Rudolph, Al-Maturidi and the Development of Sunni Theology in Samarqand, 305. Pessagno, “The Uses of Evil in Maturidian Thought,” 66.
140.
al-Taftazani, A Commentary on the Creed of Islam, 80.
141.
al-‘Omar, The Doctrines of the Maturidite School, 77.
142.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 64. Also see: Esen, “Maturidi’nin Bilgi Kuramı,” 55.
143.
Pessagno, “On Al Maturidi’s Notion of Human Acts,” 61–64.
144.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 439.
145.
Işık, Maturidi’nin Kelam Sisteminde İman, 91.
146.
Pessagno, “On Al Maturidi’s Notion of Human Acts,” 62.
147.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 444.
148.
Ibid., 455–463.
149.
Muhtaroglu, “Al-Maturidi’s View of Causality,” 14.
150.
Topaloğlu, “Allah,” 471.
151.
Shehadi, Ghazali’s Unique Unknowable God, 11.
152.
Qur’an: Shura, 11.
153.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 12.
154.
Several anthropomorphists like Muqatil ibn Suleiman (d. 767) attributed God a place; others, like Ahmad ibn Ata, even argued that it was possible to meet God and shake hands with him. Üzüm, “Mücessime,” 50.
155.
Williams, “Aspects of the Creed of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal,” 455.
156.
Adamson and Pormann, “More than Heat and Light,” 484.
157.
Ansari, The Ethical Philosophy of Ibn Miskawaih, 52.
158.
Bakar, “Some Aspects of Ibn Miskawayh’s Thought,” 117.
159.
Ibn Rushd, The Book of the Decisive Treatise, 22. The style and discourse have always played a role in the dissemination of Islamic theological opinions. A typical rationalist text is usually abstract, unlike the stylish texts of popular scholars like al-Ghazali who employed poetic discourse, a key difference in terms of public outreach. Like other rationalists, Ibn Rushd was critical of the use of poetic discourse in argumentation. See: Averroes, Three Short Commentaries, 35.
160.
al-Ghazali, Council for Kings, 7.
161.
al-Ghazali, Moderation in Belief, 46–48.
162.
Zayd, Al-Ghazali on Divine Predicates, 42.
163.
Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam, 17–18.
164.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 99.
165.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 46. al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid. 99. Thiele, “Abu Hashim al-Jubbaʾi’s (d. 321/933) Theory of ‘States’,” 374–379.
166.
al-Ghazali, Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 5.
167.
al-Subki, Al-Sayf Al-Mashur, 66–70.
168.
al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, 59.
169.
Benevich, “The Classical Ash‘ari Theory of Ahwal,” 142–174. Koloğlu, “Ebu Haşim el-Cübbai’nin Ahval Teorisi,” 208.
170.
Thiele, “Abu Hashim al-Jubbaʾi’s (d. 321/933) Theory of ‘States’, 374–379. Memiş, “Eş‘ariliğe Yaptığı Katkılar Bakımından Ebu’l-Meali El-Cüveyni,” 100.
171.
Frank, Al-Ghazali and the Ash‘arite School, 109.
172.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 19.
173.
al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 95.
174.
Ibid., 48, 50.
175.
Ibid., 88.
176.
Ibid., 59.
177.
Ibid., 90.
178.
Fakhry, Al-Farabi, Founder of Islamic Neoplatonism, 79.
179.
Janos, Method, Structure, and Development in al-Farabi’s Cosmology, 182.
180.
al-Ghazali, Moderation in Belief, 110–126.
181.
Al-Jubouri, History of Islamic Philosophy, 181.
182.
Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy, 59.
183.
Subhan, “The Relation of God to time and space,” 234.
184.
Ibn Rushd has a similar opinion about the attributes. He writes: “Ash‘arites allow a plurality in God, regarding Him as an essence with attributes”. Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 175.
185.
Adamson, “Al-Kindi and the Mu‘tazila,” 50.
186.
Belo, “Mu’tazilites, Al-Ash‘ari and Maimonides,” 120.
187.
Subhan, “Mu’tazilite View on Beatific Vision,” 422–428.
188.
al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 51.
189.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 178, 184–185, 193.
190.
al-Ghazali, Moderation in Belief, 63–70. Though believing in the visibility of God, Razi was more moderate as he maintained that the vision of God couldn’t be demonstrated through rational arguments. Ceylan, “Theology and Tafsir in the Major Works of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi,” 196.
191.
The Hanbali tactic against the Mu‘tazila conception of God differed from that of Ash‘ari and Maturidi schools. Alarmed by their encounter with the Mu‘tazila, Hanbalis promoted anthropomorphic ideas about God. See Blankinship, “The early creed,” 52. Listening to a Friday sermon of Ibn Taymiyya in 1326, Ibn Battuta narrated that, in the midst of his speech, he said “Verily God descends to the sky over our world in the same bodily fashion I make this decent”. Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa, 67–68.
192.
Hughes, “Imagining the Divine,” 33.
193.
al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 62.
194.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 3.
195.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence, 107, 130, 135.
196.
Another debate about God’s actions led to the crisis of the Mihna. The origin of the crisis was the question: Is God’s speech created or divine? Not recognizing any other thing as divine, the Mu‘tazila declared the Qur’an to be created. The traditionalist camp, led by Ahmad bin Hanbal, rebutted this. See: Al-Tabari, The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 32, 199–214. Walter M. Patton argued that the defeat of the Mu‘tazila view of the Quran impeded the rise of “the principle of free thought, without recognition of authority” in the Muslim world. Patton, Ahmet ibn Hanbal and the Mihna, 2.
197.
al-Ghazali, The Incoherence of Philosophers, 70–71.
198.
al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, 146.
199.
Abrahamov, “Fakhr al-Din al-Razi on God’s Knowledge,” 154.
200.
Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, 285.
201.
Hourani, “Islamic and Non-Islamic Origins of Mu’tazilite Ethical Rationalism,” 59.
202.
Martin and Woodward with Atmaja, Defenders of Reason in Islam, 92.
203.
Frank, “Moral Obligation in Classical Muslim Theology,” 207.
204.
Syed, Coercion and Responsibility in Islam, 25–28.
205.
El-Rouayheb, “Must God Tell Us the Truth?” 412.
206.
al-Ash‘ari, Al-Ibanah, 28.
207.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 63.
208.
Ibid., 64.
209.
al-Ghazali, Moderation in Belief, 178. al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 99.
210.
al-Ghazali, Moderation in Belief, 177.
211.
Ibid., 99.
212.
Hourani, “Ghazali on the Ethics of Action,” 96.
213.
al-Ash‘ari, Kitab al-Luma‘, 180.
214.
Ibid., 172.
215.
Çakmak, “Analogies between al-Maturidi’s and Duns Scotus,” 473–475.
216.
Rudolph, “Al-Maturidi’s Concept of God’s Wisdom,” 48, 53.
217.
Karaman, Çağrıcı, Dönmez and Gümüş, Kur’an Yolu Türkçe Meal ve Tefsiri II, 400–401.
218.
Rudolph, “Hanafi Theological Tradition and Maturidism,” 289.
219.
Pessagno, “The Uses of Evil in Maturidian Thought,” 423.
220.
al-Maturidi, Kitab al-Tawhid, 192.
221.
Ibid., 430.

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Bacik, G. (2020). The Islamic Idea of Nature. In: Islam and Muslim Resistance to Modernity in Turkey. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25901-3_3

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