Abstract
Liberal democracy is hailed as one of the finest systems of government; it allows for differences of political views, and hence, the incursion of radical views punctuates political landscapes all over the world. The assertiveness of contemporary European populism exemplifies the embedded permissiveness of democracy, though such tolerance paves the way for populist political rhetoric geared at further breaking already ruptured socialisation structures. The strength of contemporary European populism can be fairly explicated through a constructivist prism. In addition to contributing to socialisation breakdown, populism has demonstrated how socially constructed narratives can redefine democracy, cause political infection, and create a new normal. Populism also proves that European electorates are rational political consumers, rational enough to change loyalty and accommodate a new political product.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adler, E. (1997). Imagined (Security) communities: Cognitive regions in international relations. Journal for International Studies, 26(2), 249–277.
Akkerman, T., Lange, S., & Rooduijn, M. (2016). Radical right-wing populist parties in Western Europe: Into the mainstream?. New York: Routledge.
Alderman, L. (2012, July). Greek far right hangs a target on immigrants. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/world/europe/as-golden-dawn-rises-in-greece-anti-immigrant-violence-follows.html. Accessed June 12, 2016.
Anoosh, C. (2017, March 8). Rise of the nationalists: A guide to Europe’s far-right parties. New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2017/03/risenationalists-guide-europe-s-far-right-parties.
Austria far right: Freedom Party wins key posts in new government. (2017, December). BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-42379985.
Bakare, N. (2015). Europe and the Muslim World some issues and approaches. Policy Perspectives, Institute of Policy Studies, 12(1), 51–80.
Bakare, N. (2016). Europeans’ three dimensional approaches towards Middle East refugee crisis. Policy Perspectives, Institute of Policy Studies, 13(2), 63–91.
Bakare, N. (2017). The breakdown of socialization and political re-assertiveness of European far-right. Policy Perspective, 14(2), 55–82.
Baumol, W., & Blinder, A. (2008). Economics: Principles and policy. Singapore: Cengage Learning.
Berger, P. L., & Thomas, L. (2011). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. New York: Open Road Media.
Bergmann, E. (2016). Nordic Nationalism and Right-Wing populist politics: Imperial relationships and national sentiments. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Berman, S. (2016, Nov/Dec). Populism is Not Fascism. Foreign Affairs, 95(6), 39–44.
Beyme, K. (2018). From post-democracy to neo-democracy. Cham: Springer.
Bilefsky, D. (2017, March). Ban on head scarves at work is legal, E.U. Court Rules. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/world/europe/headscarves-ban-european-court.html. Accessed March 15, 2017.
Boztas, S. (2016, December). Anti-Islam Dutch MP Geert Wilders found guilty of inciting racial discrimination. Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/09/anti-islam-dutch-mp-geert-wilders-found-guilty-discrimination/. Accessed March 15, 2017.
Boztas, S., Chazan, D., & Foster, P. (2017, January). Dutch prime minister warns migrants to ‘be normal or be gone’, as he fends off populist Geert Wilders in bitter election fight. Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/01/23/dutch-prime-minister-warns-migrants-normal-gone-fends-populist/. Accessed March 15, 2017.
Brodeur, S. (2005). Why support the radical right? A theory for the social construction of radical right populist identities. Lund: Lund University Press.
Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bur, V. (2015). An introduction to social constructionism. London: Routledge.
Burke, J. (2004, November). The murder that shattered Holland’s liberal dream. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/nov/07/terrorism.religion.
Carassava, A. (2017, January). How the rise of Donald Trump has Re-Energised Greece’s neo-Nazis. Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/donald-trump-muslim-ban-greece-neo-nazi-golden-dawn-athens-march-protest-a7555706.html. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Chakelian, A. (2017, March). Rise of the nationalists: A guide to Europe’s far-right parties. New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2017/03/rise-nationalists-guide-europe-s-far-right-parties. Accessed March 9, 2017.
Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (2009). Hate crime: Impact, causes and responses. London: Sage Publications.
Connolly, K. (2017, January). After the US, far right says 2017 will be the year Europe wakes up. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/21/koblenz-far-right-european-political-leaders-meeting-brexit-donald-trump. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Copley, C. (2016, February). Refugee crisis: Germany agrees new measures aimed at reducing arrivals. Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-germany-agrees-new-measures-aimed-at-reducing-arrivals-a6851591.html. Accessed February 3, 2017.
Crenshaw, M., & Pimlott, J. (1997). International encyclopedia of terrorism. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
Crisp, J. (2017, July). Belgian ban on Muslim full-face veil is legal, European Court of Human Rights Rules. Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/11/belgian-ban-full-face-veil-legal-european-court-human-rights/. Accessed July 11, 2017.
Cumming-Bruce, N. (2017, February). Switzerland votes to ease citizenship for third-generation immigrants. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/12/world/europe/switzerland-citizenship-3rd-generation-referendum.html. Accessed February 12, 2017.
Davies, P., & Jackson, P. (2008). The far right in Europe: An encyclopedia. Westport. Connecticut: Greenwood World Press.
Dent, M. C., & Huang W. F. D. (2002). Northeast Asian regionalism: Lessons from the European experience. London: Routledge.
Dix, R. H. (1985). Populism: Authoritarian and democratic. Latin American Research Review, 20(2), 29–52.
Dunai, M. (2016, October). Hungary’s Orban rejects ‘Sovietization’ by Brussels, defends nation state. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-hungary-orban-idUSKCN12N0PJ. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Dutch MPs oppose headscarf proposal for Amsterdam police. (2017, May). The express tribune. https://tribune.com.pk/story/1414159/dutch-mps-oppose-headscarf-proposal-amsterdam-police/. Accessed May 20, 2017.
Dzankic, J., & Soeren, K. (2017). State-sponsored populism and the rise of populist governance: The Case of Montenegro. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 19(4), 403–418.
Engel, V. (2018). Xenophobia, radicalism, and hate crime in Europe. Moscow: Editus.
Erlanger, S. (2017a, June). For Britain, political stability is a Quaint Relic. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/11/world/europe/britain-politics-theresa-may.html. Accessed June 12, 2017.
Erlanger, S. (2017b, March). E.U. is turning 60 and searching for something to celebrate. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/24/world/europe/eu-is-turning-60-and-searching-for-something-to-celebrate.html. Accessed June 12, 2017.
Europe’s Rising Far Right: A Guide to the Most Prominent Parties. (2016, December). The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/world/europe/europe-far-right-political-parties-listy.html. Accessed February 2, 2017.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2018, June). Hate crime recording and data collection practice across the EU.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2012, November). Hate crime in the European Union.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2006, November). Current migration situation in the EU: Hate Crime.
Eurozone confident on Cyprus bailout. (2013, March). BBC News business. http://www.bbc.com/news/business-21655475. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Forster, K. (2016, November). Europe’s new fascism? The far-right leaders hoping to take power in 2017. Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/marine-le-pen-geert-wilders-norbert-hofer-rise-of-fascism-europe-far-right-leaders-donald-trump-a7417276.html. Accessed August 2, 2017.
Fosnot, C. T. (2005). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
Foster, P., Senay, B., & Barney, H. (2017, March). Dutch election result: Mark Rutte sees off Geert Wilders challenge as Netherlands rejects far-Right. Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/15/dutch-election-results-geert-wilders-andmark-rutte-vie-power/. Accessed March 16, 2017.
Frones, I. (2016). The autonomous child: Theorising socialisation. Cham: Springer.
Fukuyama, F. (2006). The end of history and the last man. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Galstan, W. A. (2018). The rise of European populism and the collapse of the centre-left. Brookings Institution.
Golder, M. (2016). Far right parties in Europe. The Annual Review of Political Science, 19, 477–497.
Grabow, K. (2016). PEGIDA and the Alternative für Deutschland: Two sides of the same coin? European View, 15(2), 173–181.
Griffin, R. (2000). Interregnum or endgame? The Radical Right in the ‘post-fascist’ Era. Journal of Political Ideologies, 5(2), 163–178.
Guide to nationalist parties challenging Europe. (2016, May). BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36130006. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Gutteridge, N. (2017, May 10). Populism isn’t over’ Eurocrats urged to rein in gloating over Macron victory. Express. http://www.express.co.uk/news/politics/802744/European-Union-Eurocrats-warned-populism-not-dead-despite-Macron-victory. Accessed January 2, 2018.
Hahnel, R. (2002). The ABCs of Political Economy: A Modern Approach. London: Pluto Press.
Hameleers, M. (2018). A typology of populism: Toward a revised theoretical framework on the sender side and receiver side of communication. International Journal of Communication, 12, 2171–2190.
Heffer, G. (2015, December). Switzerland defies EU diktat pledging to bring in immigration controls. Express. http://www.express.co.uk/news/politics/624326/Switzerland-EU-freedom-of-movement-immigration-migrant-crisis. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Hirschman, O. A. (1970). Exit, voice, and loyalty: Responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states. Cambridge: Massachusetts.
Hurrell, A. (1995). Regionalism in theoretical perspective. In L. Fawcett & A. Hurrell (Eds.), Regionalism in World politics: Regional organisation and international order (pp. 38–73). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Janssen, J. (2017, January). Close-up: Geert wilders. Berlin Policy Journal. http://berlinpolicyjournal.com/close-up-geert-wilders/.jornhocke.html?mtrref=undefined&gwh=5E36432569613EFB24053FD1185DCDFA&gwt=pay.
Kallis, A. (2013). Breaking taboos and ‘mainstreaming the extreme’: The debates on restricting Islamic symbols in contemporary Europe. In R. Wodak, K. Majid, & M. Brigitte (Eds.), Right-wing populism in Europe: Politics and discourse (pp. 55–71). London: Bloomsbury.
Kaltwasser, C. R., Paul, T., Paulina, O. E., & Pierre, O. (2017). The oxford handbook of populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Katsas, G. (2012). Anomie, social changes and dysfunctional socialisation. ENCEPHALOS, 49, 98–102.
Kelstrup, M. (2012). Denmark’s relation to the European Union: A history of Dualism and Pragmatism. In L. Miles, & A. Wivel (Eds.), Denmark and the European Union. New York: Routledge.
Khan, M. (2018, March). New Dutch ‘Nexit’ party threatens Rutte. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/98f94164-2cca-11e8-a34a-7e7563b0b0f4. Accessed September 20, 2018.
Krasteva, A. (2016). The Post-communist rise of National populism: Bulgarian paradoxes. In G. Lazaridis, G. Camoani, & A. Beneveniste (Eds.), The rise of the far-right in Europe (pp. 161–200). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Liang, C. S. (2007). Europe for the Europeans: The foreign and security policy of the populist radical right. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate.
Lidegaard, B. (2015, June). Denmark’s far-right kingmakers. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/22/opinion/denmarks-far-right-kingmakers.html. Accessed February 2, 2017.
Lopatka, J. (2016, October). Czech Finance Minister’s Party wins Regional Elections. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-czech-election-idUSKCN1280R7. Accessed October 9, 2016.
Markovi, N. (2017). Muslim citizens in the West: Spaces and agents of inclusion and exclusion. New York: Routledge.
Martinelli, A. (2016). Populism on the rise: Democracies under challenge. Milano: Italian Institute for International Political Studies.
McLellan, D. (1995). Ideology. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Melissa, E. (2017, May). Pro-Nazi soldiers in German Army raise alarm. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/10/world/europe/germany-military-far-right-extremists-terror-plot-nazi.html. Accessed May 10, 2017.
Mentzer, T. J. (2001). Supply chain management. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Milne, R. (2015, July). Denmark to cut immigrant benefits in half. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/5fe8095c-1ffb-11e5-aa5a-398b2169cf79. Accessed June 2, 2017.
Mudde, C., & Kaltwasser, C. R. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mudde, C. (1996). The war of words defining the extreme right party family. West European Politics, 19(2), 225–248.
Mudde, C. (2000). The ideology of the extreme right. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Muller, J. W. (2016). What is populism. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Nwabuzo, O. (2014). Racist crime in Europe ENAR shadow report 2013–2014. Brussels: European Network against Racism.
O’ Brien, T. (2016). Populism, protest and democracy in the twenty-first century. Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences, 10(4), 337–348.
Odmalm, P., & Hepburn, E. (2017). The European mainstream and the populist radical right. London: Routledge.
Ojeaku, N. (2014). Racist crime in Europe ENAR Shadow Report 2013–2014. Brussels: European Network Against Racism.
Oltermann, P. (2016, December). Austria rejects far-right candidate Norbert Hofer in presidential election. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/04/far-right-party-concedes-defeat-in-austrian-presidential-election. Accessed December 5, 2016.
Pirro, A. L. P. (2015). The populist radical right in Central and Eastern Europe: Ideology, impact, and electoral performance. New York: Routledge.
Rankin, J., & Philip, O. (2017, March). Europe’s right hails EU court’s workplace headscarf ban ruling. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/law/2017/mar/14/employers-can-ban-staff-from-wearing-headscarves-european-court-rules. Accessed March 14, 2017.
Rettman, A. (2015, June). Far-right parties form group in EU parliament. Euobserver. https://euobserver.com/political/129129. Accessed May 16, 2017.
Reus-Smit, C. (2005). Constructivism. In S. Burchill, D. Richard, L. Andrew, & P. Matthew (Eds.), Theories of international relations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Reuters. (2017, April 27). German Lawmakers Aim to Impose Some Limits on Full-Face Veils. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/27/world/europe/germanyparliament-veils.html?mtrref=undefined&gwh=D69E5C1EEC1A46348D221B925F54505F&gwt=pay.
Rubin, J. A. (2017a, March). Netherlands considers a new relationship to Muslims with coming election. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/13/world/europe/netherlands-election-muslims.html. Accessed March 13, 2017.
Rubin, J. A. (2017b, March). Geert Wilders Falls Short in Election, as Wary Dutch Scatter Their Votes. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/15/world/europe/geert-wilders-netherlands-far-right-vote.html. Accessed March 15, 2017.
Rubin, J. A. (2017c, May). Angela Merkel’s party scores big win in Key German state election. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/14/world/europe/german-elections-angela-merkel-martin-schulz.html?emc=edit_th_20170515&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=49519343&mtrref=undefined&mtrref=www.nytimes.com. Accessed May 14, 2017.
Rubin, J. A. (2017d, May). Emmanuel Macron Is inaugurated as France’s President. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/14/world/europe/emmanuel-macron-inauguration-france.html. Accessed May 14, 2017.
Rubin, J. A. (2017e, May). Macron decisively defeats Le Pen in French presidential race. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/07/world/europe/emmanuel-macron-france-election-marine-le-pen.html. Accessed May 7, 2017.
Ruzza, C. (2017). Populism and euroscepticism: Towards uncivil society. Journal of Policy and Society, 28(1), 87–98.
Sakellartou, A. (2015). Golden dawn and its appeal to greek youth. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Perspective, July, 1–19.
Sandford, A. (2017, December). Rise of populism in Europe ‘a real threat to democracy. Euronews. http://www.euronews.com/2017/12/29/rise-of-populism-in-europe-a-real-threat-to-democracy. Accessed December 29, 2017.
Şandru, D. (2013). The ideological components of populism. In G. Sergiu, M. Sergiu, & S. Sorina (Eds.), Contemporary populism: A Controversial concept and its diverse forms (pp. 53–83). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Sargent, L. T. (2009). Contemporary political ideologies. Mexico: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Schopflin, G. (2015). Europe: An epistemological crisis. In J. Jody & M. Ferenc (Eds.), Reframing Europe’s future: Challenges and failures of the European construction (pp. 7–15). New York: Routledge.
Selby, J. A. (2014). France. In J. Cesari (Ed.), The oxford handbook of European Islam (pp. 23–64). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sen, I. (2015, January). Greeks have handed a huge election win to a far-left anti-austerity party. Quartz. https://qz.com/332995/greece-syriza-anti-austerity-far-left-party-has-swept-elections/. Accessed August 12, 2017.
Shuster, S. (2017, January). Europe’s far-right leaders unite at Dawn of the Trump Era. TIME. http://time.com/4643051/donald-trump-european-union-koblenz/. Accessed August 12, 2017.
Skolkay, A. (2000). Populism in Central Eastern Europe. Thinking Fundamentals, 9(10), 77–103.
Smale, A. (2016, December). Angela Merkel Calls for Ban on Full-Face Veils in Germany. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/06/world/europe/merkel-calls-for-ban-on-full-face-veils-in-germany.html?emc=edit_th_20161207&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=49519343. Accessed August 27, 2017.
Smith, A. D. (1992). National identity and the idea of European Unity. International Affairs, 68(1), 55–76.
Stone, J. (2017, September). German elections: Far-right wins MPs for first time in half a century. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/german-election-results-exit-poll-2017-live-latest-afd-mps-merkel-alternative-a7964796.html. Accessed September 24, 2018.
Stratfor. (2013, July 18). Hungary seeks a multidimensional foreign policy. https://www.stratfor.com/geopolitical-diary/hungary-seeks-multidimensional-foreignpolicy.
Szczerbiak, A., & Taggart, P. (2008). ‘Theorizing party-based Euroscepticism’: Problems of Definition, measurement and causality. In A. Szczerbiak & P. Taggart (Eds.), Opposing Europe?: The comparative party politics of euroscepticism (pp. 225–230). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taub, A., & Fisher, M. (2017, January). Germany’s extreme right challenges guilt over Nazi Past. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/world/europe/germany-afd-alternative-b.
Taylor, J. P., & Flint, C. (2000). Locality politics. In P. J. Taylor & C. Flint (Eds.), Political geography, world economy, nation-state and locality. Pearson Education Limited: Patparganj Delhi.
Tharoor, I. (2018, March). Italy’s election is another blow to the European establishment. Washington Post. www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/03/05/italys-election-is-another-blow-to-the-european-establishment/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.9bb6b93b598f. Accessed March 5, 2018.
Tillerson, C. (2017). The alt-right a reference for the far-right political movement. Morrisville, North Carolina: Lulu Press.
Topaloff, K. L. (2012). Political parties and euroscepticism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Traynor, I. (2009, November). Swiss vote to ban construction of Minarets on Mosques. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/29/switzerland-bans-mosque-minarets. Accessed March 5, 2018.
Van Leeuwen, J. (2006). Towards a radical right Europe? A theory for the explanation of the success of Radical Right Populist Parties in North-Western Europe. Lund: Lund University Press.
Vasilopoulou, S. (2011). European integration and the radical right: Three patterns of opposition. Government and Opposition, 46(2), 223–244.
Viviani, L. (2017). A political sociology of populism and leadership. SOCIETÀMUTAMENTOPOLITICA, 8(15), 279–303.
Vorlander, H., Maik, H., & Steven, S. (2016). PEGIDA and New Right-Wing populism in Germany. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Vossen, K. (2017). The power of populism: Geert Wilders and the party for Freedom in the Netherlands. New York: Routledge.
Wallace, W. (1990). The transformation of Western Europe. London: Pinter.
What does Alternative for Germany (AfD) want?. (2016, September). BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37274201. Accessed August 13, 2018.
Why are thousands of Germans protesting and who are Pegida?. (2015, January). BBC Newsbeat. http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/30694252/why-are-thousands-of-germansprotesting-and-who-are-pegida. Accessed August 13, 2017.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bakare, N. (2020). Redefining Democracy and Political Assertiveness: A Constructivist Exposition of European Populism. In: Baldassari, M., Castelli, E., Truffelli, M., Vezzani, G. (eds) Anti-Europeanism. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24428-6_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24428-6_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-24427-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-24428-6
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)