Paths to Resilience: Examining EU and NATO Responses to the Tunisian and Egyptian Political Transitions

Amadio Viceré, Maria Giulia; Frontini, Andrea

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23641-0_13

Paths to Resilience: Examining EU and NATO Responses to the Tunisian and Egyptian Political Transitions

Maria Giulia Amadio Viceré³ &
Andrea Frontini⁴

Chapter
First Online: 07 August 2019

601 Accesses

Abstract

The unfolding of the Arab uprisings has shown that fostering the ability of countries affected by regime change to withstand crises is necessary for the EU and NATO to ensure the stability of the broader Southern Mediterranean region. The political transitions in Egypt and Tunisia arose from pressures to democratise. Yet, as the region’s security environment was deteriorating, EU and NATO have mostly addressed the symptoms of local instability, but largely neglected the long-term causes of insecurity in the two countries. By doing so, Euro-Atlantic diplomacy essentially enhanced state resilience at the expense of the broader societal resilience. In perspective, further political and operational coordination between NATO and the EU is needed to avoid risks of duplications and/or inconsistencies in their regional action.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Chapter: USD 29.95; Price excludes VAT (Canada)

eBook: USD 84.99; Price excludes VAT (Canada)

Softcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (Canada)

Hardcover Book: USD 149.99; Price excludes VAT (Canada)

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

1.
Hereinafter simply the Alliance.
2.
The MD pursued three main goals: achieving better mutual understanding—the political dimension; contributing to regional security and stability—the practical dimension; and dispelling misconceptions about NATO—the public diplomacy dimension (Lesser et al. 2018).
3.
At the time, the EU fear of the spread of Islamic extremism in the region originated from the murder of the American Ambassador to Libya, Christopher Steven, by militiamen in Benghazi on 11 September 2012.

References

Aggestam, L. (2008). Introduction: Ethical Power Europe? International Affairs, 84(1), 1–11.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Ahram Online. (2013, July 3). Egypt Military Unveils Transitional Roadmap. http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/75631.aspx. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Albrecht, H. (2013, January 25). Egypt’s 2012 Constitution: Devil in the Details, Not in Religion (Peace Brief 139). United States Institute of Peace. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/159373/PB139.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Amadio Viceré, M. G. (2018). The High Representative and EU Foreign Policy Integration: A Comparative Study of Kosovo and Ukraine. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Amadio Viceré, M. G., & Fabbrini, S. (2017). Assessing the High Representative’s Role in Egypt During the Arab Spring. The International Spectator, 52(3), 64–82.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Arafa, M. A. (2012). Whither Egypt? Against Religious Fascism and Legal Authoritarianism: Pure Revolution, Popular Coup, or a Military Coup d’etat. Indiana International and Comparative Law Review, 24(4), 859–897.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Ardovini, L. (2017). The Politicisation of Sectarianism in Egypt: ‘Creating an Enemy’ the State vs. the Ikhwan. Global Discourse, 6(4), 579–600.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Ayadi, R., & Sessa, E. (2016, June). EU Policies in Tunisia Before and After the Revolution: Study for the Foreign Affairs Committee (AFET) of the European Parliament EP/EXPO/B/AFET/2015/04. Brussels. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/578002/EXPO_STU%282016%29578002_EN.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Azeem, Z. (2014, May 26). Egypt’s Vote for Repression. Al Monitor. https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/05/egypt-elections-al-sisi-strongman-political-repression-votes.html#. Accessed 11 November 2018.
BBC. (2011, February). Hosni Mubarak Resigns: World Reaction. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12435738. Accessed 11 November 2018.
BBC. (2017, November 1). Tunisia Profile—Timeline. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14107720. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Bianchi, M., Lasconjarias, G., & Marrone, A. (2017, July). Projecting Stability in NATO’s Southern Neighbourhood (NDC Conference Report). NATO Defense College (NDC). http://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=1076. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Bicchi, F. (2006). ‘Our Size Fits All’: Normative Power Europe and the Mediterranean. Journal of European Public Policy, 13(2), 286–303.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Bicchi, F. (2009). Democracy Assistance in the Mediterranean: An Overview. Mediterranean Politics, 14(1), 61–78.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Bradley, M., & El-Ghobashy, T. (2013, December 25). Egypt Declares Muslim Brotherhood a Terrorist Organization. The Wall Street Journal. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303799404579280260534285946. Accessed 11 November 2018.
CBC News. (2013, July 5). World Leaders Put Egypt on Notice Over Democracy. http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-leaders-put-egypt-on-notice-over-democracy-1.1347854. Accessed 11 November 2018.
CBC News. (2014, February 10). Council Conclusions on Egypt. Brussels. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/140971.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Colombo, S., Dessì, A., & Ntousas, V. (Eds.). (2018). The EU, Resilience and the MENA Region. Brussels: Foundation for European Progressive Studies (FEPS); Rome: Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI). http://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/eu-resilience-and-mena-region. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Council of Europe. (2017, February). Terrorism: Tunisia Fears the Return of Foreign Fighters. https://www.coe.int/en/web/corruption/bilateral-activities/ukraine/-/asset_publisher/plqBCeLYiBJQ/content/terrorism-tunisia-fears-the-return-of-foreign-fighters?inheritRedirect=false. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Council of the EU. (2011, January 31). Council Conclusions on Tunisia. Brussels. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/119051.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Council of the EU. (2017, June 16). Association Between the European Union and Egypt. Brussels. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/23942/eu-egypt.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Council of the EU, Foreign Affairs Council. (2013, August 21). Council Conclusions on Egypt. Brussels. http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/september/tradoc_151710.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Daguzan, J. F. (2013). France and Islamist Movements: A Long Non-dialogue. In L. Vidino (Ed.), The West and the Muslim Brotherhood After the Arab Spring. Dubai: Al Mesbar Studies and Research Centre and Foreign Policy Research Institute. https://www.fpri.org/docs/201303.west_and_the_muslim_brotherhood_after_the_arab_spring.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Dandashly, A. (2015). The EU Response to Regime Change: In the Wake of the Arab Revolt: Differential Implementation. Journal of European integration, 37(1), 37–56.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Dandashly, A. (2018). EU Democracy Promotion and the Dominance of the Security-Stability Nexus. Mediterranean Politics, 23(1), 62–82.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Diez, T. (2013). Normative Power as Hegemony. Cooperation and Conflict, 48(2), 194–210.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Echagüe, A., Michou, H., & Mikail, B. (2011). Europe and the Arab Uprisings: EU Vision Versus Member State Action. Mediterranean Politics, 16(2), 329–335.
CrossRef Google Scholar
El-Ghazaly, S., Evers, E., & Shebaya, S. (2011). Entrenching Poverty in Egypt: Human Rights Violations that Contributed to the January 25 Revolution. Yale Human Rights and Development Journal, 14(2), 132–144.
Google Scholar
El Pais. (2011, January 31). Shame on Europe. http://elpais.com/elpais/2011/01/31/inenglish/1296454847_850210.html. Accessed 11 November 2018.
EEAS—European External Action Service. (2016a, June 28). Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe: A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy. Brussels. http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/top_stories/pdf/eugs_review_web.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
EEAS—European External Action Service. (2016b, September 16). Roadmap on The Follow-Up to the EU Global Strategy. Bratislava. https://club.bruxelles2.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2016/09/feuilleroute-strategieglobale@ue160922.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
EEAS—European External Action Service. (2018). Relations Between the EU and Tunisia. https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/16047/Relations%20between%20the%20EU%20and%20Tunisia. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Euractiv. (2013, July 31). EU’s Top Diplomat Endeavours to Resolve Egypt Crisis amid NATO Concerns. https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/eu-s-top-diplomat-endeavours-to-resolve-egypt-crisis-amid-nato-concerns/. Accessed 11 November 2018.
European Council on Foreign Relations. (2013). Middle East and North Africa in European Foreign Policy Scorecard 2012. http://www.ecfr.eu/scorecard/2013/mena/56. Accessed 11 November 2018.
European Parliament. (2013, March 14). Situation in Egypt. Strasbourg. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2013-0095+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN. Accessed 11 November 2018.
European Parliament. (2014, February 6). Resolution on the Situation in Egypt (2014/2532 (RSP)). http://www.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/summary.do?id=1336888&t=d&l=en. Accessed 11 November 2018.
European Union. (2003, December). A Secure Europe in a Better World: European Security Strategy. Brussels. https://europa.eu/globalstrategy/en/european-security-strategy-secure-europe-better-world. Accessed 11 November 2018.
European Union. (2014, June 5). Declaration on Behalf of the European Union on the Presidential Elections in Egypt (10649/1/14 REV 1). Brussels. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/143096.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Filípková, L., et al. (2012). NATO and the Arab Spring: Challenge to Cooperation, Opportunity for Action? (Association for International Affairs Policy Paper 1/2012). http://www.amo.cz/en/prague-transatlantic-talks-en/nato-and-the-arab-spring-challenge-to-cooperation-opportunity-for-action-2/. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Fisher Onar, N., & Nicolaidis, K. (2013). The Decentring Agenda: Europe as a Post-Colonial Power. Cooperation and Conflict, 48(2), 283–303.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Freedom House. (2013, August 9). Timeline of Human Rights Violations in Egypt Since the Fall of Mubarak. https://freedomhouse.org/article/timeline-human-rights-violations-egypt-fall-mubarak. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Freedom House. (2018). Egypt Profile. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2018/Egypt. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Gaub, F. (2012). Against All Odds: Relations Between NATO and the MENA Region. U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute. https://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=1112. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Hague, F. (2013). International Policy Responses to Change in the Arab World. In L. Vidino (Ed.), The West and the Muslim Brotherhood After the Arab Spring. Dubai: Al Mesbar Studies and Research Centre and Foreign Policy Research Institute. https://www.fpri.org/docs/201303.west_and_the_muslim_brotherhood_after_the_arab_spring.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Hanlon, Q. (2012). The Prospects for Security Sector Reform in Tunisia: A Year After the Revolution. Strategic Studies Institute. https://issat.dcaf.ch/sqi/Learn/Resource-Library/Policy-and-Research-Papers/The-Prospects-for-Security-Sector-Reform-in-Tunisia-A-Year-After-the-Revolution. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Hassan, O. (2015). Underminig the Transatlantic Democracy Agenda? The Arab Spring and Saudi Arabia’s Counteracting Democracy Strategy. Democratization, 22(3), 479–495.
CrossRef Google Scholar
High Representative and European Commission. (2016, September 29). Strengthening EU Support for Tunisia. Brussels. https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/communication_from_commission_to_inst_en_v6_p1_859678-2.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
High Representative and European Commission. (2017, June 7). A Strategic Approach to Resilience in the EU’s External Action. Brussels. https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/2017-joint-communication-strategic-approach-resilience-eus-externalaction_en. Accessed 11 November 2018.
High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. (2013, September 11). Speech by EU High Representative Catherine Ashton to the European Parliament on the situation in Egypt (A 454/13). Brussels. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-13-689_en.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Huber, D. (2013). US and EU Human Rights and Democracy Promotion Since the Arab Spring. Rethinking Its Content, Targets and Instruments. The International Spectator, 48(3), 98–112.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Isaac, S. K. (2011, March). NATO and Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Security: Prospects for Burden Sharing (NATO Defence College Forum Paper). https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/128708/fp_16.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Kerrou, M. (2017, November). Challenges and Stakes of State and Societal Resilience in Tunisia (IAI Working Paper 17/31). Istituto Affari Internazionali and Foundation for European Progressive Studies (FEPS). http://www.iai.it/sites/default/files/iaiwp1731.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Lesser, I., Brandsma, C., Basagni, L., & Lété, B. (2018, June). The Future of NATO’s Mediterranean Dialogue—Perspectives on Security, Strategy and Partnership. The German Marshall Fund of the United States. http://www.gmfus.org/publications/future-natos-mediterranean-dialogue. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Manners, I. (2002). Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms? Journal of Common Market Studies, 40(2), 235–258.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Mcinerney, S. (2010, April 7). Redirection of U.S. Democracy Assistance in Egypt Is Raising Questions About the Obama Administration’s Interest in Democracy Promotion. Carnegie Foundation. https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/40530. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Nassif, H. B. (2018). Patterns of Civil-Military Relations and Their Legacies for Democratization: Egypt Versus Tunisia. In A. Stepan (Ed.), Democratic Transition in the Muslim World: A Global Perspective. New York: Columbia University Press.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Nicolaidis, K., & Howe, R. (2002). ‘This Is my EUtopia …’: Narrative as Power. Journal of Common Market Studies, 40(4), 767–792.
CrossRef Google Scholar
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2007, June). Discours du Secrétaire général délégué Alessandro Minuto Rizzo à la conférence du Dialogue méditerranéen. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_8774.htm?selectedLocale=fr. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2010, November 19). NATO’s New Strategic Concept. https://www.nato.int/strategic-concept/. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2011, December 7). Final Statement. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_81943.htm?mode=pressrelease. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2012, May 20). Chicago Summit Declaration. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_87593.htm?selectedLocale=en. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2014a, January 27). The Secretary General’s Annual Report 2013. Brussels. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_106247.htm?selectedLocale=en. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2014b, September 5). Wales Summit Declaration. https://www.nato.int/cps/ic/natohq/official_texts_112964.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2015, February). NATO Mediterranean Dialogue. Brussels. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_60021.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2016a, February 11). The Secretary General’s Annual Report 2015. Brussels. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_127529.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2016b, July 9). Warsaw Summit Communiqué. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133169.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2017a, March 15). Egypt Appoints Ambassador to NATO. http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/natosource/egypt-appoints-ambassador-to-nato. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2017b, September 5). NATO Strategic Direction South Hub Inaugurated. https://www.nato.int/cps/ic/natohq/news_146835.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2018a, March 15). The Secretary General’s Annual Report 2017. Brussels. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_152773.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). (2018b, July 11). Brussels Summit Declaration. Brussels. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_156624.htm. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Noutcheva, G. (2015). Institutional Governance of European Neighbourhood Policy in the Wake of the Arab Spring. Journal of European Integration, 37(1), 19–36.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Orfy, M. M. (2010). NATO and the Middle East: The Geopolitical Context Post-9/11. Abingdon: Routledge.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Pace, M. (2009). Paradoxes and Contradictions in EU Democracy Promotion in the Mediterranean: The Limits of EU Normative Power. Democratization, 16(1), 39–58.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Pace, M. (2014). The EU’s Interpretation of the ‘Arab Uprisings’: Understanding the Different Visions About Democratic Change in EU-MENA Relations. Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(5), 969–984.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Pace, M., & Cavatorta, F. (2012). The Arab Uprisings in Theoretical Perspective—An Introduction. Mediterranean Politics, 17(2), 125–138.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Pinfari, M. (2013). The EU, Egypt and Morsi’s Rise and Fall: ‘Strategic Patience’ and Its Discontents. Mediterranean Politics, 18(3), 460–466.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Poli, S. (2016). La revisione della politica europea di vicinato. European Papers, 1(1), 263–274.
Google Scholar
President of the European Commission. (2012, September 13). Statement by President Barroso following His Meeting with Mr Mohamed Morsi, President of Egypt (SPEECH/12/596). Brussels. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-12-602_en.htm?locale=en.
Profazio, U. (2018, April 6). Tunisia’s Reluctant Partnership with NATO. International Institute for Strategic Studies. https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2018/04/tunisia-reluctant-partnership-nato. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Rasmussen, A. F. (2011, May 31). NATO and the Arab Spring. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/opinion/01iht-edrasmussen01.html. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Reichborn-Kjennerud, E. (2013). NATO in the “New” MENA Region: Competing Priorities Amidst Diverging Interests and Financial Austerity. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs. https://www.nupi.no/en/Publications/CRIStin-Pub/NATO-in-the-New-MENA-Region. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Reuters. (2011, January 31). Factbox—International Reaction to Crisis in Egypt. http://www.reuters.com/article/uk-egypt-world-idUKTRE70U2KK20110131. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Scharp, J. M. (2011, January 28). Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations. Congressional Research Service. http://www.voltairenet.org/IMG/pdf/Egypt_Background_and_U-S-_Relations.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Steinberg, G. (2015, January 19). Germany and the Muslim Brotherhood. Al-Mesbar Center. https://www.fpri.org/docs/chapters/201303.west_and_the_muslim_brotherhood_after_the_arab_spring.chapter5.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Stepan, A. (2018). Introduction. In A. Stepan (Ed.), Democratic Transition in the Muslim World: A Global Perspective. New York: Columbia University Press.
CrossRef Google Scholar
The Guardian. (2011, February 27). French Foreign Minister Resigns.
Google Scholar
The Telegraph. (2011, November 22). Tunisia’s Coalition Agrees New Posts as It Forms Interim Government. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8906335/Tunisias-coalition-agrees-new-posts-as-it-forms-interim-government.html. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Voltolini, B., & Colombo, S. (2018). The EU and Islamist parties in Tunisia and Egypt After the Arab Uprisings: A Story of Selective Engagement. Mediterranean Politics, 23(1), 83–102.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Waterfield, B. (2011, February 4). Egypt Crisis: David Cameron Reprimands Baroness Ashton at EU summit. The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8303929/Egypt-crisisDavid-Cameron-reprimands-Baroness-Ashton-at-EU-summit.html. Accessed 11 November 2018.
Whitman, R. (Ed.). (2011). Normative Power Europe Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Google Scholar

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

LUISS University, Rome, Italy
Maria Giulia Amadio Viceré
Formerly European Policy Centre, Trieste, Italy
Andrea Frontini

Authors

Maria Giulia Amadio Viceré
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Andrea Frontini
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Leiden, The Netherlands
Eugenio Cusumano
The Hague, The Netherlands
Stefan Hofmaier

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Amadio Viceré, M.G., Frontini, A. (2020). Paths to Resilience: Examining EU and NATO Responses to the Tunisian and Egyptian Political Transitions. In: Cusumano, E., Hofmaier, S. (eds) Projecting Resilience Across the Mediterranean. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23641-0_13

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23641-0_13
Published: 07 August 2019
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-23640-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-23641-0
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)