Abstract
In this chapter, we talk about centres that have become known as one of the main factors behind the flourishing of translation. It provided this movement with a major impetus, such as the transmitters, which was a vital component of the translation movement. The other element, which is no less important than the previous in this field, which came also from some centres is the translation material, which included the various manuscripts, which had an impact on the revival of the translation process. It is worth noting that these centres, except for the House of Wisdom al-Baghdadi, existed before the advent of Islam, but their role in the field of research continued to exist even after the arrival of the Islamic religion. These centres were Alexandria, Antioch, Ḥarrān, Naṣṣı̄bı̄n, al-Rahā, and finally, Jundisapur. Also, the emergence of the most prominent transmitters known to the translation movement, such as Ḥunain ibn Isḥāq and his son and nephew, Ya‘qūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindı̄, Thābit ibn Qurrah and his son, Qiaṭā ibn Lūqā, Issā ibn Isḥāq ibn Zur‘ah, who played a major and important role to revive this movement, is linked to these centres. Each of them played a specific role in this movement, they were supporting factors to this translation movement, and if not for their translation, this movement will not be able to go far in terms of progress and development.
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Notes
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- 12.
Hitti Philip Khūrī (1965). A Short History of the Near East [Mūjaz Tārīkh al-Sharq al-Adnā], p. 94.
- 13.
Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq took long journeys to obtain the full versions of works such as Galen’s book of Proof/al-Burhān, which was rare in the third /ninth century; he recounted, “I searched for it thoroughly and repeated the search in the regions of Iraq, Syria, Palestine and Egypt, until I reached Alexandria, but I did not succeed to find except about half of it in Damascus”. See Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq (d. 260/873). Kitāb al-‘Ashar Maqālāt fī al-‘Ayn [Book of the ten treatises on the eye: the earliest existing systematic text-book of ophthalmology] tr. Meyerhof, Max Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1928, p. 29.
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‘Uthmān Fatḥī (1973). al-Ḥudūd al-Islāmiyyah al-Bīzanṭiyyah bayn al-Iḥtikāk al-Ḥarbī wa-l-Ittiṣāl al-Ḥaḍārī, vol. 3: 262–266.
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‘Adawī Ibrāhīm Aḥmed (1994). Al-Dawlah al-Islāmiyyah wa Imbarāṭūriyat al-Rūm Cairo: Maṭba‘at al-Shurūq, p. 166; Sharīf Aḥmad Ibrāhīm (1981). Dirāsāt fī al-Ḥaḍārah al-Islāmiyya, p. 37; al-Yāzijī Kamāl (1961). Ma‘ālim al-Fikr al-‘Arabī fī al-‘Aṣr al-Wasīṭ Beirut: Dār al-‘Ilm lil-Malāyīn, p. 58; Badawī ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (1949). Rawḥ al-Ḥaḍārah al-‘Arabiyya Beirut: Dār al-‘Ilm lil-Malāyīn, pp. 99–100.
- 17.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammed ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, pp. 435–436.
- 18.
Ibid.
- 19.
Ibid., pp. 444–445; al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Akhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 212–213; Ibn al-‘Ibrī, Gregorias al-Malṭī (d. 685/1286). Mukhtaṣr Tārīkh al-Duwal, pp. 138–139.
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Al-Alūsī, Maḥmūd Shukrī (d. 1857). Bulūgh al-Irab fī Ma‘rifat Aíwāl al-‘Arab ed. Muḥammad Bahjat al-Atharī Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘rifah, 1960, vil. 2:223–224.
- 21.
Verily! Those who believe and those who are Jews and Christians, and Ṣābians, whoever believes in God and the Last Day and do righteous good deeds shall have their reward with their Lord, on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. Q. 2: 62.
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Aḥmed Amīn (1975). Fajr al-Islām Yabḥath ‘an al-Ḥayāt al-‘Aqliyyah fī Ṣadr al-Islam ’ilā-Akhir al-Dawlah al-Umawiyyah Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍah, p. 139.
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Kurd ‘Alī Muḥammad (1983). Khiṭat al-Shām Damascus: Maktabat al-Nūrī, vol. 4: 29.
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Kurd ‘Alī Muḥammad (1968). al-Islam wa-l-Ḥaḍārah al-‘Arabiyyah Cairo: Maṭba‘at Lajnat al-Ta’līf wa-l-Tarjamah. vol. 1:158.
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Aḥmed Amīn (1956). Ḍuḥā al-Islām, vol. 1: 258–259.
- 26.
George Ḥadād (1958). al-Madkhal ’ilā Tārīkh al-Ḥaḍārah Damascus: Maktabat al-Jāmi‘ah, p. 420.
- 27.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammed ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, pp. 435–436.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Ibn Abī Uṣaybi‘ah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā’, pp. 276–283; al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 89–98; Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462/070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, p. 60; Urnik Zīb al-A‘ẓamī (2005). Ḥarakat al-Tarjamah fī al-‘Aṣr al-‘Abbāsī, pp. 113–114; Dimitri, Gutas (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Greco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries), p. 125.
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‘Uthmān Fatḥī (1973). al-Ḥudūd al-Islāmiyyah al-Bīzanṭiyyah bayn al-Iḥtikāk al-Ḥarbī wa-l-Ittiṣāl al-Ḥaḍārī, vol. 3: 262–263.
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‘Awīṣ Zakā (1974). Sīrat Mār Ephram al-Suryānī Baghdad: Majma‘ Maṭbū‘āt al-Lughah al-Suryāniyyah, p. 36.
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Boer, Tjitze J. de (1903). The History of philosophy in Islam London: Luzac, pp. 12–13; Boer, Tjitze J. de (1980). Tārīkh al-Falsafah fī al-Islām, tr. Muḥammad Abū Raydah, Tunis: al-Dār al-Tūnisiyyah lil-Nashir, p. 418.
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George Ḥadād (1958). al-Madkhal ’ilā Tārīkh al-Ḥaḍārah, p. 418.
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O’Leary De Lacy (1962). ‘Ulūm al-Yūnān wa-Subul Intiqālihā ’ilā al-‘Arab, tr. Wahhīb Kāmil and Zakī ‘Alī Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍah al-Miṣriyyah, pp. 67–68; and his O’Leary De Lacy (1957). Masālik al-Thaqāfah al-Ighrīqiyyah ’ilā al-‘Arab tr. Tamām Ḥassān Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Anglū al-Miṣriyyah, pp. 72–74, and p. 264.
- 37.
Hitti Philip Khūrī (1965). A Short History of the Near East [Mūjaz Tārīkh al-Sharq al-Adnā], p. 132; al-Yāfī Sāmī (1970). al-Ḥaḍārah al-Insāniyyah bayn al-Sharq wa-l-Gharb fī ‘Asharat Qurūn 264-750, Beirut: n.p., p. 250.
- 38.
al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Akhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 106.
- 39.
‘Uthmān Fatḥī (1973). al-Ḥudūd al-Islāmiyyah al-Bīzanṭiyyah bayn al-Iḥtikāk al-Ḥarbī wa-l-Ittiṣāl al-Ḥaḍārī, vol. 3: 264.
- 40.
Khudha Bakhsh Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn (1960). al-Ḥaḍārah al-Islāmiyyah, tr. Ḥasan ‘Alī al-Kharbūṭlī Cairo: Dār al-Kutub al-Ḥadīthah, pp. 156–157.
- 41.
Boer, Tjitze J. de (1980). Tārīkh al-Falsafah fī al-Islām, pp. 20–21.
- 42.
Arnold, Thomas Walker, Sir, (1864–1930). The Legacy of Islam/[Turāth al-Islām], p. 313; Briffault, Robert (1876–1948). Athar al-Thaqāfah al-Islāmiyyah fī Takwīn al-Insāniyyah, tr. Abū al-Naṣr Aḥmad al-Ḥusayn, Cairo: Dār al-Kutub al-Ḥadīthah, 1970, p. 103; Abū al-Naṣr ‘Umar (1948). al-Ḥaḍārah al-Umawiyyah al-‘Arabiyyah fī Dimashq Aleppo: Maṭābi‘ Ruṭūs, pp. 350–351.
- 43.
Gustave Le Bon (2017). Arab Civilization/Ḥaḍārat al-‘Arab, tr. ‘Ādil Zu‘ītir Cairo: Dār al-‘Ālam al-‘Arabī, p. 460.
- 44.
Meyerhof, Max (1874–1945). Min al-Iskandariyya ’ilā Baghdād: Baḥth fī Tārīkh al-Ta‘līm al-Falsafī wal-Ṭibbī ‘and al-‘Arab tr. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Badawī Cairo: Dār al-Nahḍah al-Miṣriyyah, 1940, p.56; Arnold, Thomas Walker, Sir, (1864–1930). The Legacy of Islam/[Turāth al-Islām], p. 452; al-Nashār ‘Alī Sāmī (1981). Nash’at al-Fikr al-Falsafī fī al-Islam vol.1: 113.
- 45.
al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Akhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 106.
- 46.
Ibn Abī Uṣaybi‘ah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā’, p. 165.
- 47.
Ibid., pp. 180–187; al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 106–119; Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 466.
- 48.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 192; al-Jāḥiẓ, Abū ‘Uthmān ‘Amr ibn Baḥr (d. 255/869). al-Bayān wa-l-Tabyīn ed. ‘Abd al-Salām Muḥammad Hārūn Cairo: Maktabat al-Khanjī, 1975, vol. 1: 52; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Abū ‘Abdullah Shihāb al-Dīn (d. 626/1229). Mu‘jam al-Udabā’: Irshād al-Arīb ’ilā Ma‘rifat al-Adīb, vol. 11: 267.
- 49.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammed ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 199; Farūkh, ‘Umar (1981). Tārīkh al-Adab al-‘Arabī: al-A‘ṣur al-‘Abbāsiyyah Beirut: Dār al-‘Ilm li-l-Malāyīn, p. 181; al-Zirklī, Khayr al-Dīn (2002). al-A‘lām, Beirut: Dār al-‘Ilm li-l-Malāyīn, vol. 3: 103.
- 50.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammed ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 92 and p. 271.
- 51.
Sa‘īd al-Dayājī (1975). Bayt al-Ḥikma, pp. 34–36; Micheau, Françoise. “al-Mu’assasāt al-‘Ilmiyya fī al-Sharq al-Adnā fī al-Qurūn al-Wusṭā,” in Rushdī Rāshid. Mawsū‘at Tārīkh al-‘Ulūm al-‘Arabiyyah. vol. III: 1259–1260.
- 52.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, pp. 428–439.
- 53.
Ibid., pp. 169–170; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Abū ‘Abdullah Shihāb al-Dīn (d. 626/1229). Mu‘jam al-Udabā’: Irshād al-Arīb ’ilā Ma‘rifat al-Adīb, vol. 5: 191–192.
- 54.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 241; al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 267–268; Kaḥḥālah, ‘Umar Riḍa, (1957). Mu‘jam al-Mu’allifīn Damascus: al-Maktabah al-‘Arabiyyah, vol. 13: 233.
- 55.
al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Akhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 127; Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 440; Urnik Zīb al-A‘ẓamī (2005). Ḥarakat al-Tarjamah fī al-‘Aṣr al-‘Abbāsī, p. 119.
- 56.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 399.
- 57.
Ibid., pp. 398–399.
- 58.
Ibid., p. 437; al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 185.
- 59.
Ibn Abī Uṣaybi‘ah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā’, pp. 222–232; Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 465; al-Qifṭī, Jamāl al-Dīn, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 282–290.
- 60.
Sa‘īd al-Dayājī (1975). Bayt al-Ḥikmah, p. 38.
- 61.
Ibid., pp. 40–42.
- 62.
Ḥamādah Muḥammad Māhir (1978). al-Maktabāt fī al-Islām: nash’atuhā wa Taṭawwuruhā wa-Maṣā’iruhā, p. 58, and p. 65.
- 63.
Marḥabā Muḥammad ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (2000). Min al-Falsafah al-Yūnāniyyah ’ilā al-Falsafah al-Islāmiyyah, pp. 304–305.
- 64.
Ibid.; Aḥmad Shalabī (1977). Tārīkh al-Tarbiyah al-Islamiyyah Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍah, vol. 4:364–365.
- 65.
al-Khizānah, al-Bayt, or al-Dār, means the shop where the books are collected and adapted to a known system to read and benefit from the science. These books, which were transferred to Baghdad, were only part of that great Greek treasury, collected in the days of the Greeks and made in Constantinople. See, ‘Awād Kurkīs (1986). Khazā’in al-Kutub al-Qadīmah fi al-Irāq: min aqdam al-‘uṣūr ḥattā sanat 1000 hijrīi Beirut: Dār al-Rā’id al-‘Arabī, pp. 105–108; in the Qur’ānic verses, the term Khizāna appears and reads:
Say (O Muḥammad): “I don’t tell you that with me are the treasures of Allah, nor (that) I know the unseen; nor I tell you that I am an angel. I but follow what is revealed to me by inspiration.” Say: “Are the blind and the one who sees equal? will you not then take thought?” Q. 6: 50.
al-Khizānah is known in Arabic as the place where the object is stored. It was used to denote the place where the books were kept. al-Bayt was used as a reference to the house and called in accordance with the merchants’ shops, and was used in Islam as a reference to Bayt al-Mal/Public Treasury, the place where the state money is kept. There is no doubt that the name of the Bayt al-Ḥikma/House of Wisdom has also been named as the place where the books were kept. al-Ḥikmah/ Wisdom was used in tandem with the word ‘philosophy’. It seems that the Khizānat al-Ḥikmah/Treasury of Wisdom and the Bayt al-Ḥikmah/House of Wisdom were called upon to store the collection of these books, because all or most of them are not religious books, but the books that were quoted from other nations, and most of these books dealt with falsafa/philosophy or ḥikmah/wisdom. Aḥmad Amīn (1956). Ḍuḥā al-Islām, vol. 2: 63–64. Ibn al-Nadīm mentioned the “Khizānat al-Ma’mūn/the library of al-Ma’mūn,” the place where al-Ma’mūn kept the most famous works that he obtained as a result of his efforts during the translation movement. Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 13.
- 66.
Ibid., pp. 105–112; Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, p. 102; al-Mas‘ūdī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn (d. 346/957). Murūj al-Dhahab wa-Ma‘ādin al-Jawhar, vol. 1: 129; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Abū ‘Abdullah Shihāb al-Dīn (d. 626/1229). Mu‘jam al-Udabā’: Irshād al-Arīb ’ilā Ma‘rifat al-Adīb, vol. 8: 277; Ḥamādah Muḥammad Māhir (1978). al-Maktabāt f ī al-Islām: nash’atuhā wa Taṭawuruhā wa-Maṣā’iruhā, p. 64; al-Jabūrī Yaḥyā Wahīb (2006). Bayt al-Ḥikmah w- Dawr al-‘Ilm fī al-Ḥaḍārah al-Islamiyyah, pp. 39–43.
- 67.
Al-Subkī Taqī al-Dīn, ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (d. 771/1370). Mu‘īd al-Ni‘am wa-Mubīd al-Niqam ed. Muḥammad ‘Alī al-Najjār Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Kutub al-Thaqāfiyyah,1986, pp. 131–132.
- 68.
Aḥmad Shalabī (1977). Tārīkh al-Tarbiyah al-Islamiyya, vol. 4: 184–185.
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Bsoul, L.A. (2019). Translation Centres. In: Translation Movement and Acculturation in the Medieval Islamic World . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21703-7_3
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