1.1 Characteristics of Built Environments

The term “built environment ” refers to all aspects of the human-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity: the human-made space in which people live, work, and create on a day-to-day basis (Roof and Oleru 2008). It ranges in scale from indoor to outdoor active spaces, and it extends in four-dimensional space (i.e., length-x, width-y, depth-z, time-t), so the boundaries among them are often blurred (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1
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The continuum of space and time of the built environment

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Early concepts of built environments date to Classical Antiquity; notable is the work of Hippodamus of Miletos, an architect and urban planner who lived between 498 and 408 BCE (Glaeser 2011). He is considered the father of urban planning, and his name is given to the grid layout of city planning, known as the Hippodamian plan , which is based on a grid of right angles and the allocation of public and private space. The centre of the city is home of the city’s most important civic public spaces, including the agora (i.e., the central component of the city, the marketplace), the bouleuterion (i.e., a building that housed the council of citizens in Ancient Greece; an assembly hall), theatres, and temples. Private rooms surround the city’s public areas (Glaeser 2011; Boundless 2017).

Although the concept of the built environment is more than 2500 years old, the term emerged in the 1980s and came into widespread use in the 1990s (Crowe 1997).

McClure and Bartuska (2007, p. 5) described the creative results of human activities throughout history and a holistic and integrated concept of the built environment as: “Everything humanly made, arrange and maintain (e.g., design , plan and build construction), to fulfil human purposes (e.g., needs, wants and values), to mediate the overall environment, with the results affecting the environment in context.”

Bartuska (2007) introduced the term “total built environment ”, which is organized into seven interrelated components that emerge from human needs , thoughts, and actions:

  • Products—include materials and commodities generally created to extend the human capacity to perform specific tasks

  • Interiors—arranged groupings of products generally enclosed within a structure

  • Structures—planned groupings of spaces defined by and composed of products

  • Landscapes—exterior areas and/or settings for planned groupings of spaces and structures

  • Cities—groupings of structures and landscapes of varying sizes and complexities

  • Regions—groupings of cities and landscapes of various sizes and complexities

  • Earth—groupings of regions consisting of cities and landscapes—the entire planet.

In Bartuska’s definition, every component of the built environment is defined and shaped by context; each and all of the individual elements contribute either positively or negatively to the overall quality of environments, both built and natural and to human-environment relationships (Bartuska 2007). In the processes related to planning and designing of built environments from micro, medium, to a global scale, the negative consequences of anthropogenic activities (i.e., air, soil, water, food contamination) should be fully prevented. In setting preventive measures, public-awareness and individual responsibility are vital. Although the built environment is distinguished from the natural environment, it should be in harmony with it (Bartuska 2007).

Due to holistic endeavours and the extent of our human-made environment , the term “built environment” is used in various disciplines, including architecture, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, occupational safety, and environmental and public health.

The Construction Industry Council (CIC 2017) suggests that the built environment “encompasses all forms of building (e.g., housing, industrial, commercial, hospitals, schools), and civil engineering infrastructure, both above and below ground and includes the managed landscapes between and around buildings.”

In recent years, environmental public health research has expanded the definition of “built environment”. In environmental public health, built environment refers to physical environments that are designed with health and wellness as integral parts of the communities. The built environment significantly affects the health of individuals and communities. This was most evident during the industrial revolution when infectious diseases were the primary public health threat: unsanitary conditions and overcrowded urban areas facilitated the spread of infection (Perdue et al. 2003).

During the 19th century, the connection between environmental public health and the built environment became increasingly apparent. In this field, dramatic improvements in environmental public health were made possible in industrialized nations through changes in the built environment. The installation of comprehensive sewer systems, improvements in building designs to ensure that residents had light and fresh air, and the movement of residential areas away from noxious industrial facilities all brought significant improvements in health.

Industrialization highlighted the relationship between the built environment and environmental public health (Rosen 1993) which seemed to have diminished in the mid-20th century. Infectious diseases had been brought under control and, as a result, the layout and planning of cities came to be viewed as a matter of aesthetics or economics, but not health (Perdue et al. 2003).

Today, the majority of public health problems are related to chronic diseases. The built environment influences the public’s health, particularly in relation to such diseases. However, many urban and suburban environments are not well designed to facilitate healthy behaviour or create the conditions that protect health. Health officials can provide information about healthy living, but if people live in poorly designed physical environments, their health will suffer (Perdue et al. 2003). A sedentary lifestyle and poor nutrition contribute to obesity, a risk factor for some of the leading causes of mortality, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, and some cancers (Mokdad et al. 2003; Glanz et al. 2016).

Although the links between physical activity, proper nutrition, a clean environment, and health are well known, the current built environment does not promote healthy lifestyles. Many urban environments lack safe open spaces that encourage exercise and access to nutritious food and promote the use of alcohol and tobacco products through outdoor advertising (Perdue et al. 2003). A spread-out suburban design facilitates reliance on automobiles, increasing pollution and decreasing the time spent walking. Research has indicated that the way neighbourhoods are planned can affect both the physical activity and mental health of the communities’ residents (Renalds et al. 2010; Kent and Thompson 2014). Studies have shown that built environments designed to improve physical activity do, in fact, demonstrate higher rates of physical activity, which in turn positively affects health (Carlson et al. 2012). The environment is integral in promoting physical activity (Goldstein 2002).

The built environment affects health in a number of ways. It is not sufficient to educate people regarding healthy lifestyles; the built environment must promote, or at least allow engagement in healthy behaviours. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account all influencing parameters of the design of the built environment (Fig. 1.2). Legislation on the built environment can be used as a tool to accomplish this goal (Gostin 2000).

Fig. 1.2
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The cut-off crowd of influencing parameters of the design of the built environment

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1.2 A Historical Background of the Built Environment

Vernacular buildings are buildings that are designed based on local needs, availability of construction materials, and reflect local traditions. Vernacular architecture relied on the design skills and tradition of local builders. However, since the late 19th century many professional architects have worked in versions of this style. It tends to evolve to reflect the environmental, cultural, technological, economic, and historical contexts (Scott 1996; Abbacan-Tuguic 2016). Principles of vernacular buildings are incorporated into bioclimatic design processes (Krainer 1993a). Bioclimatic design, based on common sense and location endowments , results in comfortable indoor conditions. Socrates’s sun-tempered house and Preskar’s cottage , Velika planina, are chosen as examples of bioclimatic designs of vernacular buildings (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4).

Fig. 1.3
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Socrates’ sun-tempered house

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Socrates’s House or sun-tempered house was designed by Socrates, the Greek philosopher, about 2500 years ago. It is a trapezoid-shaped house with the long side facing the sun. A house with such an ideal shape stays warm in winter and cool in summer without reliance on outside energy sources. The roof overhang on the south blocks the hot summer sun yet allows the winter sun to penetrate the home. The roof slopes down in the back to protect from winter winds (Natural Building Blog 2013).

In Book III, Chapter VIII, of Xenophon’s Memorabilia of Socrates, written a few decades after Aeschylus, and in the midst of a Greek wood fuel shortage, the Greek philosopher, Socrates, observed: “Now in houses with a south aspect, the sun’s rays penetrate into the porticos in winter, but in the summer, the path of the sun is right over our heads and above the roof, so that there is shade. If then this is the best arrangement, we should build the south side loftier to get the winter sun and the north side lower to keep out the winter winds. To put it shortly, the house in which the owner can find a pleasant retreat at all seasons and can store his belongings safely is presumably at once the pleasantest and the most beautiful.”

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (80–70 BC) was a Roman author, architect, civil engineer, and military engineer. He is the author of De architectura, known today as The Ten Books on Architecture. According to Vitruvius, every architect should focus on three central themes when preparing a design for a building: firmitas (strength), utilitas (functionality), and venustas (beauty). In his work, he explained that the climate determinates the style of the house and how the particular purposes of different rooms require different exposures, suited to convenience and to the quarters of the sky (e.g., winter dining rooms and bathrooms should have a south-western exposure; bedrooms and libraries ought to have an eastern exposure) (Vitruvius Pollio and Morgan 1960).

Another example of vernacular architecture is shepherd housing, found on the high mountain plateau of Velika planina in Slovenia. It demonstrates a bridge between ancient patterns and modern times (Fig. 1.4). The home of a shepherd has a square form, surrounded by oval stable and hay storage, which serves as a buffer zone. The construction follows a kind of double envelope principle. The inside living space is separated from the outside by a zone which was warmed by the metabolic heat of animals or was filled with a material that has unique heat insulation properties. The foundations are made of stone, and the rest of the construction is made of wood (Krainer 1993a). For centuries, the farmers chose the same location to place their Shepard cottages: in areas protected from wind and dampness, entries facing south.

Fig. 1.4
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Reconstructed Preskar’s cottage , Velika planina, Slovenia (oval form, square form)

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Unfortunately, the settlement was destroyed during the First World War. After the war, the settlement was rebuilt, but only partially respecting the old patterns. The oval forms were replaced by square forms; the roofs were coloured with allegedly protective dark coverings. This has two main negative consequences: firstly, changed the colour climate of the environment (original cottages had the silver-grey colour of aged timber), and secondly, the dark colour has, as opposed to the natural colour of wood, larger solar absorptivity, which causes a higher degree of stretching and shrinkage of wood. All this means the shorter lifetime of wood (Krainer 1993a).

Nowadays, the design of built environments is challenged by various problems related to energy, environment and health, e.g., climate changes, energy security, depletion of natural resources, heat-related mortality and morbidity. The future climate conditions worldwide are projected in the continuation of the increase of (1) temperatures and extreme temperature conditions (extreme cold and hot days); (2) winter and spring precipitation; (3) frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events, (4) short-term and long-term droughts, (5) heat waves (IPPC 2018; Melillo et al. 2014). Climate change can, therefore, affect human health in two ways: first, by changing the severity or frequency of health problems that are already affected by climate or weather factors; and second, by creating unprecedented or unanticipated health problems or health threats in places where they have not previously occurred. According to USGCRP (2016), the adverse effects of climate change on human health can be divided on: temperature-related death and illness, respiratory and cardiovascular impacts of poor indoor and outdoor air quality , negative impacts of extreme events, vector-borne disease, water-related illness, negative impacts on food safety, nutrition and distribution, negative consequences on mental health and wellbeing . Especially vulnerable to all those changes are children , elderly , and economically disadvantaged groups.

According to climate changes and their problems, building design as a whole or their separate parts must follow the basic principles of bioclimatic design that starts from climate and location dynamic characteristics. While the principles of bioclimatic design coincide with human existence, they are often neglected in current design practice and might result in deteriorated conditions. Current and future construction and renovation must be based on the main goal of bioclimatic building design, i.e., to provide the usage of positive influences on the particular location (i.e., mass, energy, information) together with the protection against negative influences. Accordingly, passive solar elements shall be introduced (e.g., direct gain design, indirect gain design, isolated gain design, shading, night cooling, evaporative cooling, etc.). Sustainable use of locally accessible natural materials for buildings as a whole or their separate parts has to be considered, such as wood (Schickhofer and Hasewend 2000; Kuzman Kitek and Kutnar 2014; Kunič 2016). Technology is only one of the pillars of the design. Such an approach results in healthy and comfortable sustainable built environments .

It is important to understand its bioclimatic aspect, that is, the relationship between the built environment and us as living systems. This is not only for those involved in building-related profession but also for others, since all of us as living systems spend most of the time within the built environment (Shukuya 2019, p. 2).

1.3 Morphology of Engineering Design of Built Environments

The built environment includes living and working environments, depending on the use of the building and on the activities performed. As is often the case, a living environment is also a working environment and vice versa. For example, a nursing home (i.e., convalescent home, skilled nursing facility, care home, rest home or intermediate care) is a living environment for people who require continual nursing care and have significant difficulty coping with the required activities of daily living (e.g., elderly and younger adults with physical or mental disabilities). For nursing aides and skilled nurses, who are usually available 24 h a day, a nursing home is their working environment (Reinhard et al. 2008).

The methodology of the design of a healthy built environment was introduced by Krainer (1993b) and has been upgraded.

The starting point of every engineering design process is the definition of the main purpose/s of a building. The purpose of the building depends on the building classification type: e.g., commercial buildings, residential buildings, medical buildings, educational buildings, government buildings, industrial buildings, military buildings, parking structures and storage, religious buildings, transport buildings, non-buildings, infrastructure, power providers and others (OJ RS, No. 37/2018). All classified building types have subtypes (National Institute of Building Sciences 2017). For example, subtypes of medical buildings are hospitals, nursing homes, quarantines and asylums (National Institute of Building Sciences 2017). If we design a nursing home, which is a subtype of a medical building, its design process differs from the design process of a school (educational building type) or office (commercial building type).

Furthermore, more effort should be invested at the beginning of the design process when designing multipurpose buildings with various activities (i.e., office/residential building, office/commercial building; healthcare service/office/residential building). The definition of a building’s purpose and activity in the building impacts all steps of engineering design.

After the definition of the purpose of the building, the characteristic of a specific location should be taken into consideration. It often happens that a building is planned without knowing the bioclimatic endowment of the specific location. Moreover, building plans are often transferred from one location to another, without taking into account bioclimatic design approaches. This leads to an energy, environmentally, and functionally inadequate built environment with unhealthy and uncomfortable living and working conditions.

The main characteristics of bioclimatic endowment cover:

  • Topographic, geographical features, geomorphology

  • Climate type/subtype, climate changes, meteorological conditions

  • Biotic diversity, flora, fauna

  • Sources and quality of water, soil, air and food, history of pollution

  • Social determinants (cultural creativity, religion, etc.)

  • Others.

Listed characteristics of the bioclimatic endowment may present strengths or weaknesses for the design process depending on timescale and space. For example, renewable energy sources available at the specific location (i.e., sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat) could provide energy for building operation, which is a major advantage in bioclimatic design (Stritih and Koželj 2017). Furthermore, Directive 2009/28/EC sets a binding target that by 2020, 20% of energy consumption must come from renewable sources. In contrast, seasonal temperature variations resulting in overcooling and overheating represent a disadvantage in bioclimatic design. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent thermal losses in winter and heat gains in summer with efficient building envelope systems (Hudobivnik et al. 2016; Pajek et al. 2017; Kunič 2017). Defined strengths and weaknesses are stimuli for building envelope design (Krainer 1993b). In addition to the bioclimatic endorsement, cultural heritage criteria must also be included in the design. Blecich et al. (2016) highlighted the role of responsible and careful planning for the preservation of cultural heritage buildings to coincide with the application of energy efficiency measures.

At the stage of positioning the building on the specific location , it is important to find optimal orientation and position of active spaces inside a building plan (Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.5
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Schematic of the morphology of engineering design (Krainer 1993b)

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For the optimal position of active spaces inside a building plan, all activities, requirements, and conditions for the surrounding active spaces should be taken into consideration in both the indoor and outdoor environments. Particular attention should be dedicated to:

  • Temperature zones (i.e., group of active spaces with room air temperature difference less than 4 K)

  • Noisy, active spaces (e.g., machine room, elevator duct, music classroom, garage, laundry room) and quiet, noise -protected active spaces (e.g., patient room, library, bedroom)

  • Spaces with special requirements and clean spaces (e.g., obstetric bedroom unit for new-borns, intensive therapy, sterile spaces such as operating theatre, neonatology, isolation rooms)

  • Spaces without special requirements (e.g., halls, administrative facilities, service; unclean spaces, e.g., waiting room, laundry, toilets, corridors).

The positioning of active spaces inside a building plan has an impact on other performed activities (i.e., cleaning, disinfection , and maintenance), installation of HVAC (heating, ventilating and air conditioning) systems and air quality issues (i.e., classes of indoor air quality).

Since the built environment is manifested in physical objects and places (Bartuska 2007), it is necessary to define active spaces and functional zones.

BOX 1.1 Active space

Active space is a space in the built environment that can be positioned in inside or outside environments. It is a three-dimensional space intended for specific activities circumscribed by constructional complexes. Active space is characterized by specific volume, demands and needs, according to the purpose and performed activities (e.g., kitchen or dining room in a residential building; patient room or a treatment room in a hospital).

BOX 1.2 Active zone

User zone inside active space; a space or a group of spaces within a building with any combination of heating, cooling or lighting requirements sufficiently similar so that desired conditions can be maintained by a single controlling device (ISO/TC 205/WG 002: 1998). Definition of active zones and active spaces presents one of the initial steps of the engineering design process. Based on the defined active zones and spaces together with user characteristics and their needs and demands, the required and/or recommended indoor environmental conditions are determined that have to be created by effective systems. Circumvention of the first steps of design often results in uncomfortable or unhealthy conditions.

BOX 1.3 Functional zone

The physical limits of active space present functional zones. The functional zone is a boundary interface that demarcates active spaces and physically presents constructional complex. All functional zones have specific functions that determine the composition and used materials (e.g., exterior wall, roof, floor). Optimal composition of constructional complexes (i.e., exterior, interior elements) has a beneficiary effect on the user-building-system performance relationship.

Examples of functional zones and their characteristic functions are:

  • The functional zone between two temperature zones has to be thermally insulated

  • The functional zone between spaces without special requirements/unclean/clean/sterile active spaces needs final coating material resistant to cleaning and disinfection , special material selection and execution

  • The functional zone between noisy, active spaces (e.g., machine room, elevator duct, music classroom, garage, laundry room) in quiet and noise -protected active spaces (e.g., patient room, library, bedroom) needs proper sound insulation against airborne noise, structure-borne noise and room acoustics

  • The functional zone between wet or humid active spaces needs a water-proofing system, a damp-proof membrane.

The composition of functional zones and selection of materials depends on demands and conditions for active space. Demands and conditions are defined by national and international regulations, standards, and recommendations. There are various demands and conditions, such as sanitary-technical, hygienic, microbiologic, aseptic, fire safety and air quality (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Diversity of requirements and needs in the design process of the built environment (TSG-12640-001: 2008; CPR 305/2011)
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An important step is to define a complete list of all specific demands and conditions for active spaces. The main guidance is the intended use (e.g., playroom in kindergarten, patient room in a hospital, living room in a nursing home, museum), target users (e.g., children , patients, elderly , reptiles, tropical plants) and goods (e.g., artefacts, food) (Fig. 1.6).

Fig. 1.6
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Examples of active spaces with individualized microclimate conditions: a iguana in active space, b patient room in hospital, c museum artefact

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In Table 1.2 selected examples of temperature requirements for various building types, active spaces, and target users are presented. As indicated, the requirements for active spaces differ between built environment types, active spaces, and target users. When designers of built environments are creating a list of specific requirements, it is important to include all relevant information from:

Table 1.2 Selection of temperature requirements according to building type, active space and target user
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  • Requirements, recommendations

  • Scientific studies

  • Expert knowledge, and

  • User opinion.

Specifically, current requirements and recommendations are often defined on the characteristics of average users and not vulnerable ones. For example, temperature requirements and recommendations for a playground in a kindergarten may result in uncomfortable conditions for children (recommended operative temperature ranges for winter and summer periods, different categories).

Additionally, in built environments , it is often necessary to simultaneously achieve the requirements for two different user types in the same active space. For example, in a patient room for burnt patients, user-centred healing-oriented conditions for patients and comfort conditions for staff should be created (Dovjak 2012; Dovjak et al. 2013, 2014, 2018). Nowadays systems are designed that enable the individualization of active space (i.e., innovative systems to achieve healthy, comfortable, and stimulating conditions for individual users) (Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7
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Individualization of active space in a hospital environment (Dovjak 2012, p. 147)

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The requirements for the parameters of thermal comfort depend on the intended use of the building, the type of the active space, the activity, and the characteristics of the individual users (e.g., people, animals, plants). All listed requirements present input data for the design of the building. By considering them, designers will follow the morphology of the engineering design process. Among the last steps is the selection and installation of efficient HVAC systems that support the functionality of the whole building.

The purpose is to design a healthy, comfortable building (i.e., residential, public) with minimal possible use of energy and environmental impacts. Health , wellbeing and comfort are the core of the whole process of design. For this purpose, our starting point is individual vulnerable user with specific needs and demands (Dovjak et al. 2018).

1.4 Legal Framework

1.4.1 Legal Framework Towards Energy Efficiency

The energy crisis in the 1970s led to greater interest in reducing energy consumption and use of renewable energy in all sectors. The building sector is the largest single energy consumer in Europe, absorbing 40% of the final energy. The stock of buildings in the EU is relatively old, with more than 40% of it built before 1960 and 90% before 1990. Old buildings typically use more energy than new buildings. About 75% of buildings are energy inefficient and, depending on the Member State, only 0.4–1.2% of the stock is renovated each year (EPBD proposal 2016). The rate at which new buildings either replace this old stock or expand the total stock, is about 1% a year (European Parliament 2016; EPBD proposal 2016). The situation leads to the adoption and implementation of national and international legislation toward energy efficient buildings (EPBD-r 2010/31/EU; CPR 305/2011; Directive 2012/27/EU; Directive 2009/28/EC).

The European Union (EU) aims to achieve an energy efficiency target of 20% energy savings by 2020 (EC 2020) and 27% by 2030 (EC 2030). The Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU (Directive 2012/27/EU) and the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD-r 2010/31/EU) are the main energy efficiency policy instruments in the European Union for reaching these goals. Member States respond to the EED through national action plans (EPA 2017a).

The Directive 2012/27/EU is a European Union directive which mandates energy efficiency improvements within the European Union, and it introduces legally binding measures to encourage efforts to use energy more efficiently in all stages and sectors of the supply chain. It establishes a common framework for the promotion of energy efficiency within the EU in order to meet its energy efficiency headline target of 20% by 2020. The EPBD-r 2010/31/EU is an EU directive on Energy Performance of Buildings and sets the so-called “20-20-20” goals: 20% increase in energy efficiency, 20% reduction of CO2 emissions, and 20% renewables by 2020. The Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (Directive 2009/28/EC) mandates levels of renewable energy use within the European Union. The directive requires that 20% of the energy consumed within the European Union be renewable. This target is pooled among the member states. Overall the potential to achieve energy savings is the highest in the residential sector, which accounts for 40% of the EU’s final energy consumption and 36% of its greenhouse gas emissions (Climate policy info hub 2017). On 30 November 2016, the Commission proposed an update of the EPBD. The main objectives of the EPBD proposal (2016) are: integrating long-term building renovation strategies, supporting the mobilization of financing and creating a clear vision for a decarbonized building stock by 2050; encouraging the use of information and communication technology and smart technologies to ensure that buildings operate efficiently; and streamlining provisions where they have not delivered the expected results. On 19 June 2018, the revised Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EU) 2018/844 was published in the Official Journal of the European Union, following its formal approval by the Parliament on 17 April 2018 and by the Council of Ministers on 14 May 2018. The directive came into effect on 9 July 2018.

Construction Products Regulation, No. 305/2011 (CPR 305/2011) is an umbrella legal act on construction products.

BOX 1.4 Construction product

‘Construction product ’ means any product or kit that is produced and placed on the market for incorporation in a permanent manner in construction works or parts thereof and the performance of which has an effect on the performance of the construction works with respect to the basic requirements for construction works (CPR 305/2011).

CPR is designed to simplify and clarify the existing framework for the placing on the market of construction products. Provisions of the CPR seek to:

  • Clarify the affixing of CE marking to construction products. Introduce the need to issue a declaration of performance as a basis for CE marking

  • Define clear rules for the assessment and verification of constancy-of-performance (AVCP) systems applicable to construction products (former Attestation of Conformity AoC)

  • Define the role and responsibilities of manufacturers, distributors, importers, notified bodies, technical assessment bodies, market surveillance and Member States’ authorities as regards the application of this EU regulation. Introduce simplified procedures enabling cost reductions for businesses, especially SMEs (small and medium-sized enterprises)

  • Provide a clear framework for the harmonized technical specifications (i.e., harmonized standards and European Assessment Documents) (CPR 305/2011).

BOX 1.5 Construction works

‘Construction works’ means buildings and civil engineering works (CPR 305/2011). All subjects that are involved in the building design process must be aware that construction works and construction products must satisfy all basic requirements during the whole lifecycle. In this process, Basic Requirement No. 3, Hygiene, health and the environment, must not be overlooked.

Construction works as a whole and their separate parts must be fit for intended use, taking into account, in particular, the health and safety of users involved throughout the life cycle of the work. Construction works must satisfy the basic requirements for an economically reasonable working life (Table 1.3). All requirements are transferred and implemented in the national legislation (e.g. Building Act OJ RS, No. 61/2017, chang.).

Table 1.3 Basic requirements for construction works in the field of built environment (CPR 305/2011)
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Buildings are responsible for 40% of energy consumption and 36% of CO2 emissions in the EU (EC 2016, 2017). While new buildings generally need fewer than three to five litres of heating oil per square metre per year, older buildings consume about 25 litres on average. Some buildings even require up to 60 litres. Currently, about 35% of the EU’s buildings are over 50 years old. By improving the energy efficiency of buildings, we could reduce total EU energy consumption by 5–6% and lower CO2 emissions by about 5% (EC 2017).

Minimizing the environmental impact of buildings (Directive 2009/125/EC; Directive 2009/28/EC; Roadmap 2050; ECF 2010) and improving their energy efficiency (EPBD-r 2010/31/EU; Directive 2012/27/EU) are crucial in achieving the goals set by the Paris Agreement (EC 2017). At the Paris Climate Conference (COP21) in December 2015, 195 countries adopted the first-ever universal, legally binding global climate deal. The agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate change. Governments agreed on a long-term goal of keeping the average warming below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels; to aim to limit the increase to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change; on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognising that this will take longer for developing countries; to undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with the best available science. The Ecodesign Directive (2009/125/EC) sets minimum efficiency standards for technologies used in the building sector (e.g., boilers, hot water generators, pumps, ventilation, lighting, etc.). The Energy Labelling Directive (Council Directive 92/75/EEC) obliges Member Stats to use energy efficiency labelling schemes for a number of products used in the building sector.

The term “nearly zero-energy building” refers to a building that has a very high energy performance (EPBD). The nearly zero or very low amount of energy that these buildings require should be obtained, to a large extent, from renewable sources, including energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. Member States shall ensure that by 31 December 2020, all new buildings are nearly zero-energy buildings and after 31 December 2018, new buildings occupied and owned by public authorities are nearly zero-energy buildings (EPBD).

The 2030 climate and energy framework sets three key targets for the year 2030: at least 40% cut in greenhouse gas emissions (compared to 1990 levels); at least 27% share of renewable energy; at least 27% improvement in energy efficiency . The framework was adopted by EU leaders in October 2014. It builds on the 2020 climate and energy package. It is also in line with the longer term perspective set out in the Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050, the Energy Roadmap 2050 and the Transport White Paper.

An analysis of residential building regulations in eight Member States (BPIE 2015) concludes:

Indoor health and comfort aspects should be considered to a greater extent in European building codes than is current practice. When planning new nearly zero-energy buildings or nearly zero-energy buildings, refurbishments , requirements for a healthy and pleasant indoor environment should be included (BPIE 2015, p. 10).

1.4.2 Legal Framework Towards a Healthy Environment

The environment is a major determinant of health (WHO 2017). The absence and/or mastering of the risk factors in living and working environments is a basic precondition for protecting users’ health. Planners and designers of built environments are both legally and morally responsible for designing healthy and comfortable conditions . Furthermore, health is a basic human right and a priority in international and national legal acts and strategic documents. One international legal act that sets out human rights and freedoms and establishes a supervisory mechanism guaranteeing their respect by the Member States is the 29th European Social Charter (OJ RS, No. 24/1999 with changes). Health is one of the basic rights set out in the Charter. Article 11 defines the right to protection of health. With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of the right to health protection, the Parties undertake, either directly or in co-operation with public or private organizations, to take appropriate measures designed, inter alia, to remove to the greatest extent possible the causes of ill-health. The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) (formally the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms) is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe.

The health and safety of working environments are regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981, which provides for the adoption of a coherent national occupational safety and health policy, as well as action to be taken by governments and within enterprises to promote occupational safety and health and to improve working conditions. For instance, protection against specific risks is regulated by the Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977 (No. 148)—[ratifications]. The convention provides that, to the greatest extent possible, the working environment shall be kept free from any hazards due to air pollution, noise , or vibration. To achieve this, technical measures shall be applied to enterprises or processes, and where this is not possible, supplementary measures regarding the organization of work shall be taken instead. Directive 89/391/EEC - OSH “Framework Directive” aims to introduce measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers. It applies to all sectors of activity, both public and private, except for specific public service activities, such as the armed forces, the police or certain civil protection services.

International legal requirements are transferred and implemented in the national legislation . The fundamental law of the Republic of Slovenia is the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia. Article 72 stipulates that everyone has the right to a healthy living environment in accordance with the law (Constitution RS).

Many areas are not yet regulated by law and are governed only by recommendations set by different organizations. Regulation and control vary greatly between countries and types of buildings. Regulatory frameworks and standards are influenced by a number of factors (e.g., climatic, cultural, constitutional, economic, and political). For example, England has adopted a qualitative, hazard-based assessment approach for conditions in houses: the Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS). The system estimates potential threats from the conditions in houses based on 29 potential hazards. The focus of regulations in seven countries can be directed toward five controlling points (i.e., environment and neighbourhood, materials used in construction, design and layout of the dwelling, provided amenities, basic equipment, use and maintenance of the dwelling). Existing housing stock should be improved, and any problems or hazards should be reduced; when the modern quantitative guidelines cannot be met, the approach should focus on the qualitative assessment of the dwelling.

In summary, it is concluded that housing quality (e.g., construction materials, equipment installed, dwelling design ) has a major direct or indirect impact on human health and that the health sector and relevant ministries should design and implement more detailed and clear regulations to control housing conditions regarding country priorities and specificities. A good regulatory system is necessary to achieve better health conditions in built environments . There should also be more promotion of health and healthy environments. In the development of housing and health policies, it is also important to consider social aspects (e.g., those on low incomes should be addressed as a priority) and vulnerable members of society (WHO 2017).

Health , comfort and wellbeing are highlighted in EPBD-r 2010/31/EU, EPBD proposal (2016) and Directive (EU) 2018/844:

  • Measures to improve further the energy performance of buildings should take into account climatic and local conditions as well as indoor climate environment and cost-effectiveness. These measures should not affect other requirements concerning buildings such as accessibility, safety and the intended use of the building (EPBD-r 2010/31/EU, p. 2).

    Better performing buildings provide higher comfort levels and wellbeing for their occupants and improve health by reducing mortality and morbidity from a poor indoor climate . Adequately heated and ventilated dwellings alleviate negative health impacts caused by dampness, particularly amongst vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly and those with pre-existing illnesses (EPBD proposal 2016, p. 2).

    Member States should support energy performance upgrades of existing buildings that contribute to achieving a healthy indoor environment, … (Directive (EU) 2018/844, p. 3).

1.5 Relevant Problems in the Built Environment, User Complaints

Implementation of legal requirements into national legislation has resulted in shifts towards energy efficiency in the building sector. Measures, such as additional thermal insulation of facades, improved windows, increased air tightness of building envelopes (resistance of the building envelope to inward or outward air leakage), were undertaken in public as well as residential buildings. However, the scope of solutions remains narrow and one-sided. This has resulted in improved energy efficiency, but at the same time in inadequate living and working conditions . Users, experts, and the media have already given attention to this problem.

In 2008, Professor Aleš Krainer of the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, Chair of Buildings and Constructional Complexes first drew attention to the so-called passive house movement. In the work titled “Passivhaus contra bioclimatic design ” (2008) he compared bioclimatic houses and passive houses in terms of energy and indoor quality parameters. The main guidance of passive house design is to reduce the energy use for heating to less than 15 kWh/(m2a), which is sometimes described as a technical standard. For lowering transmissible energy losses through the transparent parts of the building envelope, the declared light transmittance (i.e., the proportion of the visible light spectrum that is transmitted through the glass) for glazing is at least 0.5. This value applies to idle conditions with perpendicular radiation and clean surfaces on both sides of the glazing. Considering these two factors, a more realistic value of light transmittance is 0.36. In order to evaluate the effect of light transmittance on the heat and daylight balance of the building, Krainer (2008) carried out a comparative analysis of 27 randomly selected buildings using the aforementioned windows.

BOX 1.6 Study evidence

“In a passive house, energy use for heating was reduced, on average, by 15% annually, while average daylight illuminance was lower by 25% on average, compared to a bioclimatic house. In the worst case scenario, the reduction in energy use for heating was 13%, and the worsening of daylight illuminance was by 60%!” (Krainer 2008, p. 402). The lack of daylight in built environments has adverse effects on health, comfort and productivity (Nicklas and Bailey 1997; Hathaway et al. 1992).

One of the implemented partial measures towards energy efficiency is often the installation of highly efficient mechanical systems, but with a lack of other holistic bioclimatic measures, which should be taken into account as priority actions. As a result, the savings are minimal.

BOX 1.7 Study evidence

The study on exergy consumption patterns for space heating in Slovenian buildings (Dovjak et al. 2010, p. 3004) showed that interventions performed on building envelope systems resulted in 6.25 times higher total building exergy saving potential than interventions in the efficiency of mechanical systems. Additionally, the combination of building system improvements and occupant’s behavioural changes resulted in a reduction of 75–95% of exergy consumption of heating and cooling (Schweiker and Shukuya 2010, p. 2983). Simple actions have influence not only on significant energy savings but also on improved thermal comfort conditions (Shukuya 2009, p. 1550) and occupant’s behavioural changes (Schweiker and Shukuya, 2010, p. 2976).

As the built environment is for people living there, we need to have a better understanding of the nature of occupants, i.e., occupant behaviour and it is necessary to design the built environment so as to have the occupants be healthy and comfortable enough with less exergy consumption in heating or cooling systems (Shukuya 2013, p. 108).

In HVAC systems , recuperators are commonly used to re-use waste heat from exhaust air normally expelled to the atmosphere. Such devices typically comprise a series of parallel plates of aluminium, plastic, stainless steel, or synthetic fibre, alternate pairs of which are enclosed on two sides to form twin sets of ducts at right angles to each other, and which contain the supply and extract air streams. In this manner, heat from the exhaust air stream is transferred through the separating plates, and into the supply air stream. Manufacturers claim gross efficiencies of up to 80% depending upon the specification of the unit (Milovančevič and Kosi 2016; Albers 2016). Many users report installation problems:

BOX 1.8 Opinion evidence

Some of the important disadvantages of the installed recuperator are noise and dry air. Moreover, it stopped working after 2 months of usage, because of clogged air filters.

Another example is the installation of heat pumps, which are often advertised as economical and environmentally friendly technologies. The heat pump extracts the heat from its environment and passes it on, the reverse principle to refrigerating. The heat of the groundwater, the ground or the atmosphere is absorbed by the refrigerant and used to supply heat after compression (Albers 2016). Heat pumps can be used for space heating or providing domestic hot water. Users report difficulties with installation and functioning:

BOX 1.9 Opinion evidence

A heat pump does not produce water as hot as a boiler with a maximum flow temperature of 55 °C. Low temperatures result in greater energy savings, but they presented a critical point in complete control and prevention against Legionella spp. So, from that perspective thermal disinfection is not possible at all. Also, heat pumps are often shut down during summer period.

In accordance with the requirements for water sanitation, the measurements for complete control and prevention against Legionella spp. should be performed (OJ RS, No. 19/2004; OJ RS, No. 88/2012; Joseph et al. 2005; Bartram et al. 2007; NIJZ 2017; HSE 2000). One such important measure is about water temperature; temperatures between 20 and 50 °C are favourable for the growth and reproduction of Legionella spp. Keeping the water temperature outside the ideal range for legionellae is an effective control measure for both hot and cold-water systems (WHO 2017).

Designers are mostly familiar with the specific requirements that are under their jurisdiction. It often happens that they do not cooperate with other experts during the planning and design process. Requirements are often unilateral, excluding or contradicting each other. As an example, we should mention the Slovenian national legislation , the rules on ventilation and air-conditioning of buildings (OJ RS, No. 42/2002, chang.) define a minimum number of air changes per hour per room (living, working) at 0.5. Fulfilment of this requirement results in decreased ventilation losses and inadequate indoor air quality .

Design should be in the direction towards healthy and comfortable indoor environments with the lowest possible energy use and not the lowest energy use based on the physiological minimum (Krainer 2008, p. 399).

Measures taken to improve building energy efficiency rarely consider their impact on indoor environmental quality . The same problem was highlighted in the study by Földváry et al. (2017), who evaluated the impact of simple energy renovation on indoor air quality , air exchange rates, and occupant satisfaction in Slovak residential buildings:

BOX 1.10 Study evidence

Földváry et al. (2017, p. 363) showed that CO2 concentrations were significantly higher and air exchange rates were lower in renovated buildings . Formaldehyde concentrations increased after renovation and were positively correlated with CO2 and relative air humidity . Energy renovation was associated with lower occupant satisfaction with indoor air quality .

Hribar et al. (2017) performed a case study on multi-dwelling residential building in which the effect of an increased number of air changes (from 0.7 ach to 1.0 ach) was evaluated from energy and air quality perspectives:

BOX 1.11 Study evidence

Building case with a higher number of air changes (1 ach) resulted in a minimal increase of total energy use (heating, cooling, lighting, interior heat sources) compared to the building case with the lower number of air changes (0.7 ach) (2.63% changes). Additionally, a higher number of air changes (1 ach) resulted in considerable improvement in indoor air quality parameter, CO2 (30.0% changes) (Hribar et al. 2017, p. 29).

In Slovenia, the problem of minimization of ventilation losses by minimal permissible design ventilation rates was highlighted by Dovjak et al. (2019). Such approach is supported by national legislation that often allows the use of minimal permissible values for ventilation, while other required and recommended optimal values are not taken into consideration:

BOX 1.12 Study evidence

In the work titled “Deteriorated Indoor Environmental Quality as a Collateral Damage of Present Day Extensive Renovations” (Dovjak et al. 2019), a combination of simulations of selected parameters of indoor air quality and building energy use was performed for five sets of scenarios, where design ventilation rates varied according to national legislation . Characteristics of actual kindergarten in central Slovenia, renovated in 2016, were used for building model and performed simulations. The results showed that minimal permissible value, ACH 0.5, results in the highest concentration of CO2 in both model playrooms that exceeded the national maximum permissible level for acceptable indoor air quality by 2.5 times and 3 times, and the recommended value for Category I by 5.6 times and 6.6 times. Formaldehyde concentrations in both model playrooms reached almost the value recommended by WHO (World Health Organization) and exceeded the level recommended by NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, CDC) by 4.6 and 4.5 times. The required and recommended design ventilation rates have to be in-line with scientific findings that support higher required design ventilation rates to attain optimal indoor air quality (Dovjak et al. 2019, p. 31). Design ventilation rates have to consider the highest amount of fresh air per person (i.e. actual number of occupants) and the highest amount of fresh air per m2 due to possible emissions. At the first stage of design , it is important to select non-toxic construction products (Dovjak et al. 2019, p. 38).

Nevertheless, the required and/or recommended thermal comfort parameters (i.e., air temperature , operative temperature, surface temperature, relative humidity) are mainly based on characteristics of an average person (i.e., a 30-year old male, weighing 70 kg, and 1.75 m tall; a 30-year old female, weighing 60 kg and 1.70 m tall) and do not satisfy individual needs, as proven with studies by Hwang et al. (2007), Mallick (1996), Nicol (2004). Moreover, in every environment, vulnerable population groups are always present. Designing indoor conditions based on averages results in uncomfortable or even unhealthy conditions for many people.

Finally, the subjects that are involved in the design process often act independently without including other professionals in different design stages. Due to the lack of knowledge on specific issues, some non-functional solutions are developed (e.g., dysfunctional layouts of health facilities, as pointed out by employees).

BOX 1.13 Opinion evidence

Due to financial cutbacks, the initial layouts for the ambulance room size were minimized, between corridors and inspection rooms curtains were installed and not doors, many rooms are without windows, there is a huge lack of privacy, manoeuvring patients is not possible, there is a lack of daylight and poor indoor air quality .

In this health institution, the layouts were designed without consideration of the actual number of users (e.g., patient, staff), specifics of working process and installed devices (e.g., number, sizes, layout). Such active spaces do not serve the purpose for which they were designed.

1.6 Most Common Problems in the Built Environment—Epidemiological Data

The WHO estimated that the environment, as a major health determinant, accounts for almost 20% of all deaths in the WHO European Region. A degraded urban environment, with air and noise pollution and lack of green spaces and mobility options, also poses health risks (WHO 2017; WHO Europe 2007). Housing-related inequalities are one of the environmental health inequality indicators set by the WHO. Inadequate housing conditions exist in all sub-regions and in all countries and are most often suffered by disadvantaged population groups. The WHO estimates for 11 housing hazards, related, for example, to noise, damp, indoor air quality , cold, and home safety, show that in the WHO European Region inadequate housing accounts for over 100,000 deaths per year.

There are 18–50% of buildings on a global scale, and 18% of buildings in Europe with excessive indoor moisture and humidity problems (Mudarri and Fisk 2007). In Europe, 15% of the general population is affected by dampness in the home in the EU15 (for the 15 Member States belonging to the EU before May 2004) versus 18% in the NMS12 countries (for the 12 Member States joining the EU after May 2004). However, within these regional averages, strong national variations are observed. The lowest prevalence is found in Finland, where only 5% of the population live in damp homes; similarly, low levels were found in Sweden and Slovakia. Slovenia has the highest prevalence at 30%, followed by Cyprus at 29%; 32.4% of people in Slovenia live in homes with leafy roofs, damp walls and floor bases, damaged window frames or floors (National Housing Program 2015–2025 2015). In some European countries, 20–30% of households have problems with damp, which increases the risk of respiratory disorders by 50%.

The inability to keep homes warm constitutes a housing issue among both the new Member State (NMS12) countries (18.4% prevalence among the general population) and—although to a lesser extent—the EU15 countries (6.9% prevalence). Globally, the proportion of the general population unable to keep their dwellings comfortably cool in summer is higher than the proportion unable to keep their homes warm in winter, showing that summer temperatures may be a rising problem. Much higher prevalence levels can be found among NMS12 countries (average 37.7%) than among the EU15 countries (average 24.2%).

The overall prevalence of complaints about noise from neighbours or from the street varies by country between 10 and 35%, with an average of 22% across the EU27 (WHO 2009). About every tenth lung cancer case results from radon in the home. Poor design or construction of homes is the cause of most home accidents. In some European countries, home accidents kill more people than road accidents do. Appropriate design can prevent both exposure and the risk to health.

Other adverse effects of the built environment on health, comfort, and wellbeing : Users are exposed to numerous adverse health effects that are directly or indirectly related to the quality of the environment. Environmental stressors (i.e., environmental factor intensities severe enough to require a compensatory response at any level of biological mechanisms, Wedemeyer and Goodyear 1984), such as chemical stressors (e.g., air quality ) or physical stressors (e.g., noise , light, air temperature ), can affect human bodies throughout the life cycle, including the prenatal phase. Environmental stressors can affect health on various levels including gene modification, changes in cellular activity and growth, changes in specific processes in tissue or the body. Consequently, regarding the type of the stressor, dose, duration of exposure, and vulnerability, the exposure can lead to the occurrence and development of the disease or its exacerbation. Asthma, allergies, temperature-related impacts on comfort and human performance , are disorders of circadian rhythms are examples of adverse effects caused by stressors in built environments .

Global results show that asthma has a higher prevalence in low-income urban communities with high levels of air pollution, poor indoor air quality , as well as in water-damaged, mouldy homes (EPA 2017b; Münzel and Daiber 2018). Research shows that asthma disproportionately impacts minority children ; however, it is a common disease found in people over age 65. In the built environment, indoor air pollution and other kinds of contamination can lead to or exacerbate asthma (EPA 2017b). Design of buildings must consider these issues in order to reduce environmental stressors in built environments and help in asthma prevention (EPA 2017b; Jantunen et al. 2011).

Allergies are accepted as a significant public health problem that is frequently observed worldwide (Gül and Atli 2014). It is characterized by an abnormal immune response to environmental antigens, which are frequently encountered. The World Allergy Organization reported that 22% of the participants in global scale studies suffered from at least one allergy (Warner et al. 2006). In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of allergic diseases, especially in developed countries (Hong et al. 2012). Risk factors for an allergy can be evaluated in two categories: host factors and environmental factors . Environmental factors related to the built environment that can trigger the disease are indoor and outdoor air pollution, chemicals, mould, and dust exposure, etc. Defining and avoiding the allergen in built environments is the most efficient approach for the prevention and protection against environmental allergic diseases (Gül and Atli 2014).

Environmental stressors , specifically parameters of thermal comfort , might cause temperature-related effects. According to Ikäheimo (2013), the effect of heat and cold exposure on the human body include unpleasant sensations (cold, pain, hot), decreased performance (physical and cognitive), symptoms, morbidity (cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), injuries (frostbite, hypothermia, hyperthermia, heat stroke), and mortality. The risks of extreme temperature conditions on health have been growing over the years, especially due to increased frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change. Populations vulnerable to heat and cold are the elderly , those with chronic diseases, children , and socially isolated persons.

The FINRISK 2007 study (Näyhä et al. 2014) examined the ambient temperatures considered to be hot and the upper limit of comfortable and the prevalence of heat-related complaints and symptoms in the Finnish population (N = 4007, 25–74 yrs.). The authors highlighted that a large percentage of the studied population suffers from heat-related complaints (signs or symptoms of heat strain, thirst, drying of mouth, impaired endurance and sleep disturbances, cardiac and respiratory symptoms). The temperature considered to be hot averaged 26 °C and the upper limit for thermal comfort was 22 °C. Both temperatures declined with age by 1–5 °C (Näyhä et al. 2014). The PHEWE‐project (Michelozzi et al. 2009) evaluated the impact of high environmental temperatures on hospital admissions in 12 European cities. For a 1 °C increase in maximum apparent temperature above a threshold, respiratory admissions increased by +4.5% and +3.1% in the 75+ age group in Mediterranean and North-Continental cities, respectively. The association between temperature and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular admissions did not reach statistical significance. WHO MONICA (Barnett et al. 2007) analysed the effect of temperature on systolic blood pressure on 25 populations in 16 countries (N = 115, 434). The results proved that a 1 °C decrease in temperature increases blood pressure. Additionally, it was highlighted that indoor temperature also correlated with blood pressure. The temperature of the environment might also have a significant effect on work performance. A review of worldwide studies by Seppänen et al. (2003) found no significant relationship of temperature to productivity in the comfort zone but reported an average 2% decrease in work performance per degree Celsius temperature rise, when the temperature was above 25 °C. The bioclimatic design of built environments is a critical action in managing heat and cold.

Daylight as a positive environmental stressor regulates our circadian rhythm (i.e., a biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 h). Several characteristics of light interact to influence circadian functions, including quantity, spectrum, spatial distribution, timing, and duration. Current design practice often results in too low indoor daylight levels, which consequently affect our circadian systems.

In particular, the blue part of the light spectrum affects alertness both indirectly, by modifying circadian rhythms , and directly, giving rise to acute effects. A systematic review of 68 empirical studies by Souman et al. (2018) identified that increasing the intensity of polychromatic white light was found to increase subjective ratings of alertness in a majority of studies. Additionally, inadequate daylit buildings might have an impact on the sleep quality. Düzgün and Durmaz (2017) determined the effect of light therapy on sleep problems and slept quality of elderly people (N = 61, from Social Security Institution Narlıdere Municipal Nursing Home, Turkey). The authors highlighted that the exposure to direct sunlight between 8 AM and 10 AM for 5 days seems to be effective in increasing the sleep quality. Rea et al. (2002) highlighted that the design practice, as well as the industry, should begin to optimize light’s quantity, spectrum, spatial distribution, timing and duration to support circadian system functions as well as visual system functions.

1.7 Main Objectives of Planning

The main objectives of healthy and sustainable building planning and well-being are:

  • To understand the human-building-environment relationship with emphasis on the health of users

  • To know and define basic concepts and terminology

  • To understand interconnections between natural processes inside the human body and technological processes inside the built environment (anatomical, physiological, pathological bases)

  • To understand why the health and productivity of users is more important the energy use in buildings

  • What the consequences are if we do not follow the basic principles of the design process

  • Legal and moral responsibility

  • To know how to collaborate with different profiles/sectors in the process of building design

  • Support the suggestions with scientifically supported facts and evidence-based practices

  • To know how to choose the right research studies and be critical to existing studies and claims in the media.

The most important goal is to design a healthy, comfortable building for living and working environments with minimal energy use and without negative environmental impacts. Furthermore, it is essential to create optimal conditions for users that promote health, comfort and greater productivity , and at the same time energy efficiency with minimal environmental impact. It is a highly complex and demanding process that requires experts with technical skills and knowledge in physiology, anatomy, health, etc. Consequently, a multidisciplinary cooperation approach between disciplines and professions as well as constructive communication is needed.

Citizens and politicians, bankers and lawyers, engineers and planners, designers and scientists are all indispensable and influential parts in the design, planning and management of a quality environment for all (Bartuska 2007, p. 5)

One of the most important stakeholders, actively involved in participatory design of built environment, are users that live and work there (Mahabadi et al. 2014).