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Wind, Environment and Territory

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Wind Science and Engineering

Part of the book series: Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering ((SPRTRCIENG))

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Abstract

This chapter provides a fairly consistent picture of the unlimited range of actions and effects induced by the wind on the environment and territory. Accordingly, it describes the transition from ancient windmills to modern wind turbines. It deals with the role of the wind in the transport and diffusion of minute materials, highlighting three issues: the diffusion of pollutants introduced in the air during combustion processes, soil erosion, a phenomenon able of changing the geomorphological features of nature and of making soil dry up with devastating consequences, and the snow drift that causes severe problems for road and rail traffic as well as for built areas. The chapter also deals with natural and artificial barriers and their manifold uses, first of all, the protection of crops. Finally, it continues the description of the efforts mankind carried out since ancient times to build settlements and dwellings taking inspiration from bioclimatic principles; in this framework, city planning and architecture came into contact with environmental and climatic issues reassessed on scientific grounds.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Many references mistakenly credit Perry with the construction of a wind tunnel, mentioning the plant in this paragraph as an “enclosed wind tunnel”.

  2. 2.

    Thanks to Perry’s mathematical windmill, Aermotor became the leading American windmill manufacturing company. From 1888, a year when it sold 48 windmills, in 1900, it arrived to sell 800,000 windmills, i.e. 50% of the American production in this sector.

  3. 3.

    In 1899, La Cour noticed that the speed was not uniform in the cross-section of his tunnels: at the centre, it was two times the speed near the walls. He then repeated his measurements on small-size models, in the tunnel portion where the flow speed was approximately constant.

  4. 4.

    In 1933, Richard Evelyn Byrd (1888–1957) installed a Jacobs machine in Little Antartica, at the top of a radio tower 21 m high. In 1955, his son found it still working and in excellent condition.

  5. 5.

    After six years of experimental operation, Baden-Baden was destroyed by a storm in 1931.

  6. 6.

    The use of Magnus effect as a sailing propulsion device was criticised by Einstein in an article on Science in 1936. An equally negative opinion was formulated by Karman. On the other hand, Marco Todeschini (1899–1988), a controversial Italian scientist, affirmed that Magnus effect was one of the most powerful dynamic phenomena of the nature, no less than the element propelling universe (Teoria delle apparenze (1949) and Psicobiofisica (1978)).

  7. 7.

    The first sample of a machine similar to the Savonius ’ one dates back to the eighteenth century; it was a horizontal axis type conceived by Johann Ernst Elias Bessler (1680–1745), a German known for his studies of machines for producing perpetual motion. Bessler died while he was building this machine near Furstenburg, in Germany, in 1745. The machine then remained unfinished.

  8. 8.

    The Darrieus rotor, widely criticised after the first prototypes and almost fallen into disuse, has recently become the subject of remarkable development.

  9. 9.

    The Gedser turbine was stopped in 1968, when Denmark judged wind energy economically disadvantageous and turned to nuclear energy.

  10. 10.

    In 1843, a committee to collect information about pollution was set up in London. From then on, the bills aimed at limiting noxious emissions came one after another. The first, launched in 1863, remained unapplied for many years. The first American law dealing with atmospheric pollution dates back to 1869 and was an ordnance of the city of Pittsburgh that was never enforced. Similar unused laws were issued in Cincinnati and Chicago in 1881. The first actually enforced law about pollution appeared in St Louis in 1893. In 1910, Massachusetts promulgated the first state law about pollution [17].

  11. 11.

    Equation (8.1) postulates that the diffusion took place from the high- to the low-concentration region, in a quantity proportional to the concentration gradient (from which the gradient transfer denomination was derived). Equation (8.2) is obtained by combining Eq. (8.1) with the continuity equation.

  12. 12.

    Richardson affirmed that Eq. (8.8) derived from uncertain data and that in the future, with new instruments, it would be remarkably improved.

  13. 13.

    After Smith’s studies, almost a century elapsed before experiments carried out in Scandinavia in the 1960s confirmed that acid rains could pollute areas several hundreds or thousand kilometres away from the source [21]. The “acid rain” term dates back to 1972.

  14. 14.

    Arrhenius first approached the “doubling problem” of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: he calculated that if its concentration increased by 50%, the temperature would have increased by 4.1 °C on the land and by 3.3 °C over oceans. “Such increase would have been beneficial for northern countries”.

  15. 15.

    The situation is different for winged insects that use wind as a means of transportation [104]. The flight takes place through take-off, carriage and deposition. The simultaneous take-off of a swarm is determined by biological and meteorological conditions. Once they come to contact with each other, they learn to associate. When they reach the flow, they use it as a means of transport. Finally, they play an active role at the deposition, identifying any suitable site to lay their eggs. Often, when they arrive at destination, they note that the ground is unsuitable and take off again until they find a better place.

  16. 16.

    Gregory’s theory does not solve the problem of the dispersion of organism over long distances. Applying his theory to the flight of the Puccinia graminis from Mexico to the America Great Plains and prairies, the end concentration is faint, but the problem is documented. Gregory attempted explaining this by hypothesising that only a few organisms reach their destination, but they find environmental conditions favouring their quick reproduction.

  17. 17.

    According to Bagnold and Chepil, the power law properly approximated the logarithmic law away from ground. It was not applicable near the ground.

  18. 18.

    Without turbulence, T  =  1. With turbulence, T is the ratio between the maximum and average wind force on a grain; since the 1960s, its expression is the subject of probabilistic treatments.

  19. 19.

    In some dust storms, the eroded material is carried from a continent to another. Sometimes, air swollen with dust makes a full revolution of our planet.

  20. 20.

    The dusts coming from the 1883 Krakatoa eruption remained in suspension in the higher atmosphere layers for many years [113].

  21. 21.

    The sirocco that blows over Sahara carries a huge amount of sand over the Mediterranean and to Europe. In 1901, over 2 million tons of sand arrived in Europe from Sahara [137]. The sand mixed with rain or snow causes the blood showers. In 582 the inhabitants of Paris were terrified by this phenomenon [137].

  22. 22.

    Herodotus (484–425 BC) told that an army sent by the Persian king Cambise II (559–522 BC) to attack Ethiopia was swallowed by sirocco in the Nubian Desert. The desperate soldiers went as far as to eat each other [137].

  23. 23.

    Sand storms may provide beneficial effects. The forests of Central and South America receive nutrient minerals required for their survival from Sahara.

  24. 24.

    The conditions causing the blizzard change from a country to another. The Canada Environmental Service states that a blizzard exists when wind speed exceeds 40 km/h, the snow transport reduces visibility to less than 150 m, wind-chill temperature (Sect. 8.6) is less than −25 °C, and such conditions continue for at least 4 h. The U.S. National Weather Service defines as a blizzard an atmospheric state, in which wind speed exceeds 56 km/h, and the transport of snow reduces visibility to less than 150 m and that continues for at least 3 h; no temperature thresholds are set. The British weather office defines a blizzard as an event in which wind speed exceeds 48 km/h and snow carriage reduces visibility to less than 200 m.

  25. 25.

    The first Antarctic bases, Orcadas Base and Macquarie Island Station were established by Argentina in 1904 and by Australia in 1911, respectively. On 14 December 1911, the Norwegian explorer Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen (1872–1928) was the first to reach the South Pole, beating the British expedition lead by Robert Falcon Scott (1868–1912) by 35 days. The realisation of Antarctic bases resumed in 1947, when Chile established Captain Arturo Prat Base. From that time on, the institution of new bases for scientific reasons was continuous.

  26. 26.

    The katabatic winds coming down the slopes of the central ridge in Antarctica often reach higher speeds than hurricanes.

  27. 27.

    The wind tunnel was 1 m high, 2 m wide and 9 m long. During the tests by Gerdel and Strom, no boundary layer was developed.

  28. 28.

    The initial idea to heat soil using lamps was discarded because of the shadows created by lamps and of the difficulty of accomplishing a harmonic band of radiations similar to those coming from the sun.

  29. 29.

    The German architect Hermann Muthesius (1861–1927), inspired by Howard and Letchworth, gave an essential contribution to Hellerau (1909), the first garden city in Germany. After the Second World War, the British government favoured the construction of over 30 communities based on Howard’s principles between Letchworth and Welwyn: the first was Stevenage in Hertfordshire, the last and largest was Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire. Howard’s ideas also provided inspiration for Canberra, the Australian capital, and for Epcot, Florida, the Walt Disney’s (1901–1966) amusement park.

  30. 30.

    Fuller’s ventilation system took its cue from the Siberian grain silos using the dome effect. Placing a single opening at the dome top and many smaller perimetral openings at a lower level, a circulation is originated inside the dome that draws cold air downward.

  31. 31.

    Dick’s remark was only valid for low buildings. In the case of tall buildings, both h and T can assume values so high to make the pressure gradient high. This situation became dangerous in skyscrapers, for openings at low and high floors, connected through the stair or lift well.

  32. 32.

    No speed measurements were carried out during the tests; the closely grouped streamlines pointed out high speed values.

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    Giovanni Solari

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Solari, G. (2019). Wind, Environment and Territory. In: Wind Science and Engineering. Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18815-3_8

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