Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ever Just the Same? French Foreign and Security Policy in Africa

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Contemporary French Security Policy in Africa

  • 553 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter discusses the characteristics and the evolution of French foreign policy and reviews France’s longstanding foreign and security policy-making in Africa since the end of the Empire. Continuous French interventions and the re-emergence of seemingly old patterns of behavior suggest that a linear reading of history may not be the most suited approach to understand present French policies in Africa. The chapter’s last part focuses on the multilateralization of French military interventionism and by so doing establishes the context within which Operation Serval in Mali and Operation Sangaris in the Central African Republic are embedded.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    For an exception, see Notin (2014) who proposes a process-orientated analysis of Operation Serval. The author provides a detailed account of the different stages of the decision-making process. However, Notin exclusively focuses on a reconstruction of the process and is less interested in identifying the ideational variables that explain French policy-making. See also Henke (2017), who looks at French military interventions and the role of “intervention entrepreneurs.” 

  2. 2.

    France re-joined NATO in 2009 during the presidency of Nicolas Sarkozy.

  3. 3.

    The notion France-Afrique, which originally was coined by Félix Houphouët-Boigny in order to describe the close relationship between France and its colonies, was later given a different meaning by the activist and founding member of the French NGO Survie François-Xavier Verschave (1998). Verschave changed the diction of the term in Françafrique and used it to denounce the clientelistic dimension of France’s Africa policy and the high levels of corruption that accompanied Franco-African relations. Throughout the book, I only use the term Françafrique when referring to the criminal aspects of the relationship. Otherwise, I speak of French African relations or Franco-African relations.

  4. 4.

    Equating European integration with French disengagement from Africa represents only half of the truth. France has emerged as Africa’s main advocate within the EU, thus allowing for African issues to be put on the European agenda. This is particularly true in the realm of security and defense policy. As Charbonneau highlights, “[t]he French role is absolutely central to an understanding of the EU’s role in Africa” (Charbonneau 2009, 552).

  5. 5.

    The Ministry of Cooperation was a colonial relic. It had directly emerged from the Ministry of Overseas France, formerly known as the Ministry of Colonies, and remained a ministry that dealt exclusively with francophone sub-Saharan Africa (Gouttebrune 2002, 1035).

  6. 6.

    Sarkozy, however, continued to listen to special advisor Robert Bourgi, the metaphorical heir (l’héritier spiritual) of Jacques Foccart, who during his lifetime had been the puppeteer of the Françafrique system and the living incarnation of France’s neo-colonial practices in Africa (Foccart and Gaillard 1995; Gregory 2000, 436–37; Bat 2012).

  7. 7.

    In his work on French military involvement in Africa, Charbonneau (2006, 2008a, b) insists that the past two decades of transformation are rather a sign of restructuration than of decline. Charbonneau (2009, 558) considers the Europeanization of the military domain as a reinforcement of “outdated values, practices and structures of a particular kind of knowledge, that of French security policy in Africa.”

  8. 8.

    CAR (August 13, 1960), Gabon (August 17, 1960), Congo (January 1, 1974), Cameroon (February 21, 1974), Senegal (March 29, 1974), Benin (February 27, 1975), Chad (March 6, 1976), Togo (March 23, 1976), Mauritania (September 2, 1976), Niger (February 19, 1977), Djibouti (June 27, 1977), and Mali (October 14, 1977). In the mid-1970s, the three former Belgian colonies Zaire, Rwanda, and Burundi also signed military cooperation agreements with France.

  9. 9.

    Cameroon, Central African Republic, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Gabon, Senegal, and Togo.

  10. 10.

    The slogan African solutions to African problems is not entirely new. In the 1970s, Giscard d’Estaing referred to a nexus between “peace, independence, and development, which need to be assured by the Africans themselves” (Dagut 1982, 24). The Carter administration employed the same phrase to describe their approach toward Africa in the late 1970s and early 1980s (van de Walle 2009, 17).

  11. 11.

    Olsen (2009, 8) refers to the 2006 EUFOR mission to Congo, which would have been unthinkable under a French flag due to France’s involvement in the region in the early 1990s, notably the role it played during the genocide in Rwanda.

  12. 12.

    Between 2013 and 2018, French military spending varied between 2.2 and 2.3 percent of French GDP. The Loi de programmation militaire 2019–2020, which was signed in August 2018, foresees a slight increase in military spending to meet the NATO objectives.

References

  • Adjovi, Roland. 2002. La politique africaine de la France. AFRI 2: 426–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alden, Chris. 2007. China in Africa. London; New York: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ampiah, Kweku, and Sanusha Naidu, eds. 2008. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon? Africa and China. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton, Andrew M. 2009. France the Unexceptional. In The French Fifth Republic at Fifty: Beyond Stereotypes, ed. Sylvain Brouard, Andrew M. Appleton, and Amy Mazur, 1–21. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arieff, Alexis. 2013. Crisis in Mali. CRS Report for Congress, 14 January, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aron, Raymond. 1981. Introduction à la philosophie de l’histoire: Essaie sur les limites de l’objectivité historique. Paris: Gallimard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagayoko-Penone, Niagalé. 2003. Afrique, les stratégies française et américaine. Etudes africaines. Paris: Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakong, Patrice E. 2012. La politique militaire africaine de la France: Forces sociales et changements récents. Paris: L’Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balleix, Corinne. 2010. La politique française de coopération au développement: Cinquante ans d’histoire au miroir de l’Europe. Afrique contemporaine 236 (4): 95–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balme, Richard. 2009. France, Europe and the World: Foreign Policy and the Political Regime of the Fifth Republic. In The French Fifth Republic at Fifty: Beyond Stereotypes, ed. Sylvain Brouard, Andrew M. Appleton, and Amy Mazur, 136–150. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banégas, Richard, Roland Marchal, and Julien Meimon. 2007. La fin du pacte colonial? La politique africaine de la France sous Jacques Chirac et après. Politique Africaine 105 (March): 7–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, Michael N., and Kathryn Sikkink. 2008. From International Relations to Global Society. In The Oxford Handbook of International Relations, ed. Christian Reus-Smit and Duncan Snidal, 62–83. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrios, Cristina, and Tobias Koepf, eds. 2014. Re-mapping the Sahel: Transnational Security Challenges and International Responses. EUISS Report 19. https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/re-mapping-sahel-transnational-security-challenges-and-international-responses. Accessed February 11, 2019.

  • Bat, Jean-Pierre. 2012. Le syndrome Foccart. Folio. Paris: Gallimard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayart, Jean-François. 1990. France-Afrique: La fin du pacte colonial. Politique Africaine 39 (October): 47–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2000. Africa in the World: A History of Extraversion. African Affairs 99 (395): 217–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2006. L’état en Afrique: La politique du ventre. 2nd ed. Paris: Fayard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, Eric. 2002. French, UK, and U.S. Policies to Support Peacekeeping in Africa: Current Status and Future Prospects. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs 622 (February): 1–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanc, Livre. 2008. Défense et sécurité nationale 2008. Paris: O. Jacob; La Documentation française.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bono, Giovanna. 2011. The EU’s Military Operation in Chad and the Central African Republic: An Operation to Save Lives? Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 5 (1): 23–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourmaud, Daniel. 1996. La politique africaine de Jacques Chirac: Les anciens contre les modernes. Modern & Contemporary France 4: 431–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2000. French Political Culture and African Policy: From Consensus to Dissensus. ISS Africa. http://www.issafrica.org/Pubs/Monographs/No50/Chap5.html. Accessed January 08, 2015.

  • Bovcon, Maja. 2012. France’s Response to the Ivorian Crisis under Gbagbo through the Lens of IR Regime Theory. Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Politics and International Relations - Merton College.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013. Françafrique and the Regime Theory. European Journal of International Relations 19 (1): 5–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bozo, Frédéric. 2012. La politique étrangère de la France depuis 1945. Paris: Flammarion.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brysk, Alison, Craig Parsons, and Wayne Sandholtz. 2002. After Empire: National Identity and Post-Colonial Families of Nations. European Journal of International Relations 8 (2): 267–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carmody, Pádraig. 2011. The New Scramble for Africa. Cambridge: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cerny, Philip G. 1980. The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle’s Foreign Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1986. Une politique de Grandeur: Aspects idéologiques de la politiques extérieure de De Gaulle. Paris: Flammarion. Traduits de l’anglais par Anne Krief.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chafer, Tony. 2001. French African Policy in Historical Perspective. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 19 (2): 165–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2002. Franco-African Relations: No Longer so Exceptional? African Affairs 101 (404): 343–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. Chirac and ‘la Françafrique’: No Longer a Family Affair. Modern & Contemporary France 13 (1): 7–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2008. From Confidence to Confusion: Franco-African Relations in the Era of Globalisation. In France on the World Stage: Nation State Strategies in the Global Era, ed. Mairi Maclean and Joseph Szarka, 37–56. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Chafer, Tony, and Gordon Cumming. 2011a. From Rivalry to Partnership? Critical Reflections on Anglo-French Cooperation in Africa. Review of International Studies 37 (5): 2439–2463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———, eds. 2011b. From Rivalry to Partnership? New Approaches to the Challenges of Africa. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charbonneau, Bruno. 2006. Mastering ‘Irrational’ Violence: The Relegitimization of French Security Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa. Alternatives 31: 215–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2008a. Dreams of Empire: France, Europe, and the New Interventionism in Africa. Modern & Contemporary France 16 (3): 279–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2008b. France and the New Imperialism: Security Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2009. What Is So Special About the European Union? EU-UN Cooperation in Crisis Management in Africa. International Peacekeeping 16 (4): 546–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charillon, Frédéric. 2002. Peut-il encore y avoir une politique étrangère de la France ? Politique étrangère 67 (4): 915–929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2011. La politique étrangère de la France. Paris: La Documentation française.

    Google Scholar 

  • Châtaigner, Jean-Marc. 2006. Principes et réalités de la politique africaine de la France. Afrique contemporaine 220 (4): 247–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chipman, John. 1989. French Power in Africa. Oxford: B. Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clapham, Christopher S. 1996. Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, Samy. 1986. La monarchie nucléaire: Les coulisses de la politique étrangère sous la V. République. Paris: Hachette.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, Alistair, Sophie Meunier, and Vincent Tiberj. 2013. From Sarkozy to Hollande: The New Normal? In Developments in French Politics 5, ed. Alistair Cole, Sophie Meunier, and Vincent Tiberj, 1–18. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cumming, Gordon. 1996. French Aid to Africa: A Changing Agenda? In France: From the Cold War to the New World Order, ed. Tony Chafer and Brian Jenkins, 126–136. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013. Nicolas Sarkozy’s Africa policy: Change, Continuity or Confusion? French Politics 11 (1): 24–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cumming, Gordon, and Rachael Langford. 2005. Introduction. Modern & Contemporary France 13 (1): 1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dagut, Jean-Luc. 1982. L’Afrique, la France et le monde dans le discours giscardien. Politique Africaine 5 (March): 19–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Durand, Etienne. 2013. Does France Have an Exit Strategy in Mali? Striking a Balance between Occupation and Withdrawal. Foreign Affairs. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/139020/etienne-de-durand/does-france-have-an-exit-strategy-in-mali. Accessed February 11, 2019.

  • Dominici, Louis, and Francis Dominici. 2005. France Afrique: Échecs et renouveau. Paris: L’Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dozon, Jean-Pierre. 2002. L’état français contemporain et son double, l’état franco-africain. Les Cahiers du Centre de Recherches Historiques, 30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, Stephen. 2012. Season of Rains: Africa in the World. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Engel, Ulf, and Gorm R. Olsen, eds. 2005. Africa and the North: Between Globalization and Marginalization. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fabius, Laurent. 2012. Entretien du ministre des affaires étrangères, M. Laurent Fabius, avec l’association de la presse étrangère. News Release. November 20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flichy, Thomas, ed. 2013. Opération Serval au Mali: L’intervention française décryptée. Renseignement Histoire & Géopolitique. Panazol: Lavauzelle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flichy, Thomas, Véronique Mézin-Bourginaud, and Gregor Mathias. 2014. Centrafrique, pourquoi la guerre? Paris: Lavauzelle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foccart, Jacques, and Philippe Gaillard. 1995. Foccart parle: Entretiens avec Philippe Gaillard. Paris: Fayard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foutoyet, Samuël. 2009. Nicolas Sarkozy ou la Françafrique décomplexée. Bruxelles: Éditions Tribord.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frachon, Alain. 2002. Une puissance poids moyen. Le Monde, April 15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gegout, Catherine. 2017. Why Europe Intervenes in Africa: Security, Prestige and the Legacy of Colonialism. London: Hurst & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, Antoine, and Stephen Smith. 2005. Comment la France a perdu l’Afrique. Paris: Calmann-Lévy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gnangueon, Amandine. 2011. What Will Be France’s African Policy under Nicolas Sarkozy? Dynamiques Internationales 4 (May): 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gounin, Yves. 2009. La France en Afrique: Le combat des anciens et des modernes. Bruxelles: De Boeck.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gouttebrune, François. 2002. La France et l’Afrique: Le crépuscule d’une ambition stratégique ? Politique étrangère 67 (4): 1033–1047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, Shaun. 2000. The French Military in Africa: Past and Present. African Affairs 99 (396): 435–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heisbourg, François. 2013. A Surprising Little War: First Lessons of Mali. Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 55 (2): 7–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henke, Marina. 2017. Why Did France Intervene in Mali in 2013? Examining the Role of Intervention Entrepreneurs. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 23 (3): 307–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann, Stanley. 1960. De Gaulle’s Memoirs: The Hero as History. World Politics 13 (1): 140–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howorth, Jolyon. 2013. French Foreign and Security Policy: In Search of Coherence and Impact. In Developments in French Politics 5, ed. Alistair Cole, Sophie Meunier, and Vincent Tiberj, 250–266. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hugon, Philippe. 2005. Permanences et ruptures de la politique économique de la France vis-à-vis de l’Afrique sub-Saharienne. Modern & Contemporary France 13 (1): 41–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2010. Où en est-on de la Françafrique? Revue internationale et stratégique 1 (77): 163–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huliaras, Asteris C. 2002. Continuity and Change in French Foreign Policy towards Africa. In Africa in Crisis: New Challenges and Possibilities, ed. Tunde Zack-Williams, Diane Frost, and Alex Thomson, 161–178. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • IRIN News. 2014. Briefing: Who are the Anti-Balaka of CAR? February 12. http://www.irinnews.org/report/99634/briefing-who-are-the-anti-balaka-of-car. Accessed February 11, 2019.

  • Irondelle, Bastien. 2009. Defence and Armed Forces: The End of the Nuclear Monarchy? In The French Fifth Republic at Fifty: Beyond Stereotypes, ed. Sylvain Brouard, Andrew M. Appleton, and Amy Mazur, 118–135. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2011. La réforme des armées en France: Sociologie de la décision. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irondelle, Bastien, and Sophie Besancenot. 2010. A Departure from Exceptionalism? In National Security Cultures: Patterns of Global Governance, ed. Emil Kirchner and James Sperling, 21–42. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keiger, John. 2005. Foreign and Defence Policy: Constraints and Continuity. In Developments in French Politics, ed. Alistair Cole, Patrick Le Galès, and Jonah D. Levy, vol. 3, 138–153. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koepf, Tobias. 2013a. France and the Fight against Terrorism in the Sahel: The History of a Difficult Leadership Role. Note de l’IFRI, June, 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013b. Frankreichs ‘neue’ militärische Interventionspolitik in Subsahara-Afrika (2002–2009): Eine konstruktivistische Analyse. 1. Aufl. Nomos, Baden-Baden: Außenpolitik und Internationale Ordnung.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kroslak, Daniela. 2004. France’s Policy Towards Africa: Continuity or Change? In Africa in International Politics: External Involvement on the Continent, ed. Ian Taylor and Paul Williams, 61–81. London; New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2007. The Role of France in the Rwandan Genocide. London: Hurst.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lasserre, Isabelle, and Thierry Oberlé. 2013. Notre guerre secrète au Mali: Les nouvelles menaces contre la France. Paris: Fayard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Gouriellec, Sonia. 2011. A Look at Nicolas Sarkozy’s African Policy in the French “Backyard”. Dynamiques Internationales 4 (May): 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebow, Richard N. 2010. Forbidden Fruit: Counterfactuals and International Relations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Luckham, Robin. 1982. Le militarisme français en Afrique. Politique Africaine 5 (March): 95–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchal, Roland. 1998. France and Africa: The Emergence of Essential Reforms? International Affairs 74 (2): 355–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013a. Briefing: Military (Mis)adventures in Mali. African Affairs 112 (448): 486–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013b. Central African Republic: Back at War Again? Global Observatory. http://theglobalobservatory.org/analysis/577-central-african-republic-back-to-war-again.html. Accessed February 11, 2019.

  • Martin, Guy. 1995. Continuity and Change in Franco-African Relations. Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (1): 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maulny, Jean-Pierre. 2010. Nicolas Sarkozy et la politique de défense de la France. Revue internationale et stratégique 77 (1): 109–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Médard, Jean-François. 1982. Le changement dans la continuité: La conférence des chefs d’État de France et d‘Afrique (Paris, 3 et 4 novembre 1981). Politique Africaine 5 (March): 28–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. France and Sub-Saharan Africa: A Privileged Relationship. In Africa and the North: Between Globalization and Marginalization, ed. Ulf Engel and Gorm R. Olsen, 28–41. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehler, Andreas. 2013. Erneut gewaltsamer Regimewechsel in der Zentralafrikanischen Republik. German Institute of Global and Area Studies Focus Afrika (1): 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melly, Paul, and Vincent Darracq. 2013. A New Way to Engage? French Policy in Africa from Sarkozy to Hollande. Chatham House Africa 2013/01 (May 2013).

    Google Scholar 

  • Notin, Jean-Christophe. 2014. La guerre de la France au Mali. Paris: Tallandier.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, Gorm R. 2009. The EU and Military Conflict Management in Africa: For the Good of Africa or Europe? International Peacekeeping 16 (2): 245–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pascallon, Pierre. 2004. Quelle évolution pour la politique de sécurité de la France en Afrique? In La politique de sécurité de la France en Afrique, ed. Pierre Pascallon, 13–36. Défense, Paris: L’Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perret, Thierry. 2014. Mali: Une crise au Sahel. Paris: Karthala.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Elizabeth. 2013. Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sicurelli, Daniela. 2008. Framing Security and Development in the EU Pillar Structure: How the Views of the European Commission Affect EU Africa Policy. European Integration 30 (2): 217–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SIPRI. 2017. Military expenditure database. https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex. Accessed February 11, 2019.

  • Taylor, Ian, and Paul Williams, eds. 2004. Africa in International Politics: External Involvement on the Continent. London; New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiam, Assane. 2008. La politique africaine de Nicolas Sarkozy: Rupture ou continuité. Politique étrangère Hiver (4): 873–884.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treacher, Adrian. 2003. French Interventionism: Europe’s last Global Player? Aldershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Utley, Rachel. 2005. Franco-African Military Relations: Meeting the Challenges of Globalisation? Modern & Contemporary France 13 (1): 25–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vale, Peter, and Sipho Maseko. 1998. South Africa and the African Renaissance. International Affairs 74 (2): 271–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van de Walle, Nicolas. 2009. U.S. Policy towards Africa: The Bush Legacy and the Obama Administration. African Affairs 109 (434): 1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verschave, François-Xavier. 1998. La Françafrique: Le plus long scandale de la République. Paris: Stock.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2000. Noir silence: Qui arrêtera la Françafrique? Paris: Les Arènes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, Thomas, and Martin Welz. 2014. The UN and the African Union in Mali and Beyond: A Shotgun Wedding? International Affairs 90 (4): 889–895.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, Susanna D. 2013. Briefing: Mali – Politics of a Crisis. African Affairs 112 (448): 476–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. 2019. Data: Military expenditure. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS. Accessed February 11, 2019.

  • Wyss, Marco. 2017. France and the Economic Community of West African States: Peacekeeping Partnership in Theory and Practice. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 35 (4): 487–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. German Development Institute - Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik, Bonn, Germany

    Benedikt Erforth

Authors
  1. Benedikt Erforth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Benedikt Erforth .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Erforth, B. (2020). Ever Just the Same? French Foreign and Security Policy in Africa. In: Contemporary French Security Policy in Africa. The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17581-8_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation