Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

9/11 and the Academy pp 59–90Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Psychology Confronts 9/11: Explanations, Shortcomings, and Challenges

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

  • 240 Accesses

Abstract

September 11th, 2001 can arguably be described as a day that changed America. Americans responded with a mix of anger, intolerance and compassion. The first objective of this paper is to provide an overview of how academic psychology explained the American response to the attacks. Sacred-value theory and terror management theory are useful in explaining how people respond when their cultural and moral worldviews are threatened. Intergroup emotion theory is useful in explaining how negative emotions can be generated and directed toward out-groups. The second objective is to review how psychology explained the perpetrators motivations. An ecological systems model is used to organize terrorism research. Most psychological research focuses on individual internal processes on small group dynamics. Due to limited methodological choices, psychology has been somewhat ill equipped to explain terrorist motivations. The third objective is to assess the national security role that academic psychology has played since 9/11. In modern times psychology has always played a consulting role in national security issues. After 9/11 psychology stepped up its role, especially in the controversial “enhanced interrogations.” The chapter concludes by reviewing psychology’s attempt to seek solutions to terrorism.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbe, A., and S.E. Brandon. 2012. The Role of Rapport in Investigative Interviewing: A Review. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 10: 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abeles, N. 2010. Ethics and the Interrogation of Prisoners: An Update. Ethics and Behavior 20: 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508421003798976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alison, L., and E. Alison. 2017. Revenge Versus Rapport: Interrogation, Terrorism, and Torture. American Psychologist 72: 266–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000064.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alison, L.J., Alison, E., Noone, G., Elntib, S., and Christiansen, P. 2013. Why Tough Tactics Fail and Rapport Gets Results: Observing Rapport-Based Interpersonal Techniques (ORBIT) to Generate Useful Information from Terrorists. Psychology, Public Policy and Law 19: 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • APA. 2015. APA Takes Strong Action in Response to Independent Review. Monitor on Psychology 46 (8, September): 8–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. 2004. The Role of Selective Moral Disengagement in Terrorism and Counterterrorism. In Understanding Terrorism: Psychological Roots, Consequences, and Interventions, ed. F.M. Moghaddam and A.J. Marsella, 121–150. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, J., and M. Spranca. 1997. Protected Values. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 70: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1997.2690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biderman, A.D., and H. Zimmer. 1961. The Manipulation of Human Behavior. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandon, S.E. 2011. Impacts of Psychological Science on National Security Agencies Post-9/11. American Psychologist 66: 495–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024818.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, B.L., S. Kosloff, and M.J. Landau. 2013. Death Goes to the Polls: A Meta-analysis of Mortality Salience Effects on Political Attitudes. Political Psychology 34: 183–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cotton, M.-A. 2013. Poisonous Pedagogy: The Contentious Drift of Psychology. The Journal of Psychohistory 40: 234–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J.M. 2004. Countering International Terrorism: Perspectives from International Psychology. In Psychology of Terrorism, Condensed Edition: Coping with the Continuing Threat, ed. C.E. Stout, 117–145. Westport, CN: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, B.H., and S. Abdi. 2017. Building Community Resilience to Violent Extremism Through Genuine Partnership. American Psychologist 72: 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000065.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estes, R.J., and M.J. Sirgy. 2014. Radical Islamic Militancy and Acts of Terrorism: A Quality-of-Life Analysis. Social Indices Research 117: 615–652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0363-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foyle, D.C. 2004. Leading the Public to War? The Influence of American Public Opinion on the Bush Administration’s Decision to Go to War in Iraq. International Journal of Public Opinion Research 16: 269–294. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edh025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gailliot, M.T., T.F. Stillman, B.J. Schmeichel, J.K. Maner, and E.A. Plant. 2008. Mortality Salience Increases Adherence to Salient Norms and Values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34: 993–1003. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, P. 2012. Assessing Contemporary Trends and Future Prospects in the Study of the Suicide Bomber. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research 3: 239–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-4716.2012.00101.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, P., and E. Corner. 2017. There and Back Again: The Study of Mental Disorder and Terrorism Involvement. American Psychologist 72: 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000090.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginges, J., and S. Atran. 2011. War as a Moral Imperative (Not Just Practical Politics by Other Means). Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginges, J., S. Atran, S. Sachdeva, and D. Medin. 2011. Psychology out of the Laboratory: The Challenge of Violent Extremism. American Psychologist 66: 507–519. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginges, J., I. Hansen, and A. Norenzayan. 2009. Religion and Support for Suicide Attacks. Psychological Science 20: 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02270.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J., S. Solomon, and J. Arndt. 2008. A Uniquely Human but Basic Motivation: Terror Management. In The Handbook of Motivation Science, ed. J.Y. Shah and W.L. Gardner, 114–134. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, J. 2002. Maintaining an Adequate Blood Supply Is Key to Emergency Preparedness (Testimony before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigation, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives). Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d021095t.pdf.

  • Hetherington, M.J., and M. Nelson. 2002. Anatomy of a Rally Effect: George W. Bush and the War on Terrorism. Political Science and Politics 36: 37–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, D.H., D.J. Carter, C.R. Viglucci Lopez, H.L. Benzmiller, A.X. Guo, S.Y. Latifi, and D.C. Craig. 2015. Report to the Special Committee of the Board of Directors of the American Psychological Association: Independent Review Relating to APA Ethics Guidelines, National Security Interrogation and Torture. Retrieved from the American Psychological Association website: http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2015/07/independent-review-release.aspx.

  • Hofstede, G. 2001. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horgan, J.G. 2017. Psychology of Terrorism: Introduction to the Special Issue. American Psychologist 72: 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huddy, L., and S. Feldman. 2011. Americans Respond Politically to 9/11: Understanding the Impact of the Terrorist Attacks and Their Aftermath. American Psychologist 66: 455–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huddy, L., N. Khatib, and T. Capelos. 2002. Trends: Reactions to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11th, 2001. Public Opinion Quarterly 66: 418–450. https://doi.org/10.1086/341395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, S.T., N.D. Shortland, M.P. Crayne, and G.S. Ligon. 2017. Recruitment and Selection in Violent Extremist Organizations: Exploring What Industrial and Organizational Psychology Might Contribute. American Psychologist 72: 242–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ibish, H. (ed.). 2003. Report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination Against Arab Americans: The Post-September 11 Backlash, September 11, 2001–October 11, 2002. Washington, DC: American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee. Retrieved from http://www.adc.org/PDF/her02.pdf.

  • Jones, J.M. 2003. Sept. 11 Effects, Though Largely Faded, Exist. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/9208/Sept-Effects-Though-Largely-Faded-Persist.aspx.

  • Kastenmuller, A., A.L. Ai, P. Fischer, T. Greitemeyer, and G. Winter. 2011. In the Face of Terrorism: Evidence that Belief in Literal Immortality Reduces Prejudice Under Terrorism Threat. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 50: 604–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2011.01578.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruglanski, A.W., K. Jasko, M. Chernikova, M. Dugas, and D. Webber. 2017. To the Fringe and Back: Violent Extremism and the Psychology of Deviance. American Psychologist 72: 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, J.S., and D. Keltner. 2000. Fear, Anger, and Risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81: 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luke, T.J., and M. Hartwig. 2014. The Effects of Mortality Salience and Reminders of Terrorism on Perceptions of Interrogation Techniques. Psychiatry, Psychology and the Law 21: 538–550. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2013.842625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCauley, C. 2004. Psychological Issues in Understanding Terrorism and the Response to Terrorism. In Psychology of Terrorism, Condensed Edition: Coping with the Continuing Threat, ed. C.E. Stout, 33–65. Westport, CN: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCauley, C. 2017. Toward a Psychology of Humiliation in Asymmetric Conflict. American Psychologist 72: 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, D.M., T. Devos, and E.R. Smith. 2000. Inter-group Emotions: Explaining Offensive Action Tendencies in an Inter-group Context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79: 602–616. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merari, A. 2007. Psychological Aspects of Suicide Terrorism. In Psychology of Terrorism, ed. B. Bruce, L.M. Brown, L.E. Beutler, J.N. Breckenridge, and P.G. Zimbardo, 101–115. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merari, A. 2010. Driven to Death: Psychological and Social Aspects of Suicide Terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moghaddam, F.M. 2004. Cultural Preconditions for Potential Terrorist Groups: Terrorism and Societal Change. In Understanding Terrorism: Psychological Roots, Consequences, and Interventions. ed. F.M. Moghaddam and A.J. Marsella, 103–117. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10621-005.

  • Morgan, G.S., D.C. Wisneski, and L.J. Skitka. 2011. Expulsion from Disneyland: The Social Psychological Impact of 9/11. American Psychologist 66: 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. 2015. Global Terrorism Database [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd.

  • Post, J.M. 2007. The Mind of the Terrorist: The Psychology of Terrorism from the IRA to al-Qaeda. Westport, CN: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyszczynski, T., S. Solomon, and J. Greenberg. 2003. In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10478-000.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rai, T.S., and A.P. Fiske. 2011. Moral Psychology is Relationship Regulation: Moral Motives for Unity, Hierarchy, Equality, and Proportionality. Psychological Review 118: 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarma, K.M. 2017. Risk Assessment and the Prevention of Radicalization from Nonviolence into Terrorism. American Psychologist 72: 278–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skitka, L.J., B. Saunders, G.S. Morgan, and D. Wisneski. 2009. Dark Clouds and Silver Linings: Social Responses to 9/11. In The Impact of 9/11 on Psychology and Education: The Day that Changed Everything? ed. M.J. Morgan, 63–79. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E.R., C.R. Seger, and D.M. Mackie. 2007. Can Emotions be Truly Group Level? Evidence Regarding Four Conceptual Criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93: 431–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/002-3514.93.3.431.

  • Staal, M.A., and J.A. Stephenson. 2013. Operational Psychology Post-9/11: A Decade of Evolution. Military Psychology 25: 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0094951.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tetlock, P.E., O.V. Kristel, S.B. Elson, M.C. Green, and J.S. Lerner. 2000. The Psychology of the Unthinkable: Taboo Trade-offs, Forbidden Base Rates, and Heretical Counterfactuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78: 853–870. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022.

  • Van Vugt, M., and C.M. Hart. 2004. Social Identity as Social Glue: The Origins of Group Loyalty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86: 585–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022.

  • Wagner, R.V., and K.R. Long. 2004. Terrorism from a Peace Psychology Perspective. In Understanding Terrorism: Psychological Roots, Consequences, and Interventions, ed. F.M. Moghaddam and A.J. Marsella, 121–150. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10621-010.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Adams State University, Alamosa, CO, USA

    Robert Demski

Authors
  1. Robert Demski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert Demski .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Mass Communications Department, Emory and Henry College, Emory, VA, USA

    Mark Finney

  2. History Department, Emory and Henry College, Emory, VA, USA

    Matthew Shannon

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Demski, R. (2019). Psychology Confronts 9/11: Explanations, Shortcomings, and Challenges. In: Finney, M., Shannon, M. (eds) 9/11 and the Academy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16419-5_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16419-5_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-16418-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-16419-5

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation