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What Came Next?

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Early Computing in Britain

Part of the book series: History of Computing ((HC))

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Abstract

We pick up Chap. 2’s story of the first Ferranti Mark I at Manchester University. In 1954 this machine was moved to a large new Department of Electrical Engineering, to which end-users such as the Meteorological Office came to run their programs. Meanwhile, collaboration between the University and Ferranti continued in the design of new high-performance computers and their software—notably Autocodes. The high point in this collaboration was the Ferranti Atlas which, in 1962, briefly became the most powerful computer in the world. We describe the subsequent fortunes of Ferranti Ltd. and the eventual demise of the company’s computer manufacturing endeavours. We end with a review of surviving artefacts from the nine Mark I and Mark I* computers, indicating the museums where bit can be found today. Finally, there are plans for software simulators.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    (a) Kilburn, T., D.B.G. Edwards, and G.E. Thomas. 1956. The Manchester University Mark II Digital Computing Machine. Proceedings of IEE 103 (Part B, Supp. 1–3): 247–268.; (b) Lonsdale, K., and E.T. Warberton. 1956. Mercury: A High-Speed Digital Computer. Proceedings of IEE 103 (Part B, Supp. 1–3): 483–490.

  2. 2.

    (a) Williams, F.C. 1955. Internal Report on the Computing Machine Running Costs. Manchester: University of Manchester.; (b) Williams, F.C. 1956. Introductory lecture: IEE Convention on digital computers. Proceedings of IEE 103 (Part B, Supp. 1–3): 3–9.

  3. 3.

    Mary Lee Berners-Lee: An Interview Conducted by Janet Abbate for the IEEE History Center, 12th September 2001. Interview #578 for the IEEE History Center, The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.  See: https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Mary_Lee_Berners-Lee#About_Mary_Lee_Berners-Lee. The IEEE History Center has a collection of more than 800 oral histories in electrical and computer technology which can be accessed via http://ethw.org/Oral-History:List_of_all_Oral_Histories.

  4. 4.

    Hinds, Mavis K. 1981. Computer Story. The Meteorological Office Magazine 110 (1304): 69–81.

  5. 5.

    Sheila Cooper’s memories of working with a Ferranti Mark I* computer at Avro Chadderton. Transcript produced by Simon Lavington in April 2017, based on an audio interview of Sheila by Buxton’s local historian Vivienne Doyle recorded on 14th April 2016 and supplemented by telephone conversations and e-mails with Sheila in the spring of 2017 and with her daughter Judie Adnett.

  6. 6.

    Sumner, F.H.(Frank). 1994. Memories of the Manchester Mark I. Resurrection 10: 9–13. This article is an edited version of the talk given by Professor Sumner to the Computer Conservation Society’s North West Group at The Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester on 21st October 1993.

  7. 7.

    Pritchard, H.O., and J. Mol. 2001. Computational Chemistry in the 1950s. Graphics Modelings 19 (6): 623–627. Huw was appointed Assistant Lecturer in the Chemistry Department at Manchester University in the autumn of 1951.

  8. 8.

    Sumner, F.H.(Frank)., Memories of the Manchester Mark I. Resurrection 10: 9–13.

  9. 9.

    Brooker, R.A. 1955. An Attempt to Simplify Coding for the Manchester Electronic Computer. British Journal of Applied Physics 6: 307–311. This paper describes the Mark I Autocode. Previous to Brooker’s work, Alick Glennie who was an MOS external user of the machine had developed his personal automatic coding scheme in the summer of 1952. Glennie’s system, which he called autocode, was very machine-dependent and was not released to other users.

  10. 10.

    Thomas, G.E.(Tommy). 1998. The Significance of Brooker’s Autocodes in Taking the Early Manchester Machines into the Market (1954–1960). Unpublished paper which first appeared on Thomas’s personal website in about 1998 (but is no longer there). It is reproduced here: http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/computer50/www.computer50.org/mark1/gethomas/manchester_autocodes.html.

  11. 11.

    Campbell-Kelly, Martin. 1980. Programming the Mark I: Early Programming Activity at the University of Manchester. Annals of the History of Computing 2 (2): 130–168.

  12. 12.

    Pritchard, H.O., and J. Mol., Computational Chemistry in the 1950s.

  13. 13.

    Some surviving log books from the Manchester University’s Ferranti Mark I computer, 1951–58, are preserved in: NAHC/MUC/2/C6.

  14. 14.

    J. L. Mudge, series of e-mails to Simon Lavington, May/June 2018. Johnny Mudge became a Ph.D. student for R. L. Grimsdale in October 1958, working in Dover Street on the MUSE/Atlas Fixed Store. He later joined the staff and then resigned in 1967 to take up a job in California.

  15. 15.

    Manchester University computer Mk I: results of enquiries made regarding the whereabouts of the first Ferranti Mk I computer. Single-page typed memo, prepared by the Ferranti Archivist in July 1965. To this was later added a two-page typed note headed Mk I* computer at Leicester Museum. Undated, but the contents suggest June 1973. The author is not given but it was probably Charles Somers, the Ferranti Archivist at the time.

  16. 16.

    University of Manchester, file VCA/7/46. Vice-Chancellor’s correspondence in relation to the appointment of a Professor of Electro-Technics, autumn 1946. Contains letters from referees. F. C. Williams was one of three candidates interviewed; the others were R. W. Sillars and Arnold Tustin.

  17. 17.

    Laithwaite, E.R. 1950. An Automatically Accessible Three-Dimensional Library for use with Digital Computing Machines. M.Sc. thesis, University of Manchester, Faculty of Science.

  18. 18.

    E-mails from Graham (Mac) McLean to Simon Lavington, 10th and 12th July 2018. Mac graduated in Electrical Engineering from Manchester University in 1960 and worked for F. C. Williams, first as a research student and then as a colleague, until Williams’ death in 1976. Mac continued to do research into electrical machines at the University until 1990, since when he has continued to act as a consultant to industry.

  19. 19.

    Williams, F.C., E.R. Laithwaite, and L.S. Piggott. 1957. Brushless Variable-Speed Induction Motors. Proceedings of IEE 104 (14): 102–118.

  20. 20.

    The Brain in the Box, part of the Eye on Research series of BBC television programmes and first broadcast on the evening of Tuesday 28th January 1958. Robert Reid was the interviewer. This half-hour production used standard OBU equipment based on three cameras, with film inserts done at the base studio. The programme started in the Mark I’s computer room in Dover Street and then went to the adjacent Mercury computer room. The occasion is described in: Chaos in the Computer Laboratories—Mercury goes on TV, an anonymous illustrated article which appeared in the Manchester University Engineering Society’s magazine, Lent Term 1958, pp. 14 and 15.

  21. 21.

    E-mails from Graham (Mac) McLean to Simon Lavington, 10th and 12th July 2018. Mac graduated in Electrical Engineering from Manchester University in 1960 and worked for F. C. Williams, first as a research student and then as a colleague, until Williams’ death in 1976. Mac continued to do research into electrical machines at the University until 1990, since when he has continued to act as a consultant to industry.

  22. 22.

    Many retrospective articles on the Ferranti Atlas project are collected together here: http://elearn.cs.man.ac.uk/~atlas/ In particular, reference may be made to: (a) Lavington, Simon. 2012a. NRDC and The Case for a British Supercomputer, 1956–1960, 13.; (b) Lavington, Simon. 2012b. Timeline of the MUSE/Atlas Project at Manchester University, 1955–1971, 19.; (c) Lavington, Simon., et al. 2016. Tony Brooker and the Atlas Compiler, 29.

  23. 23.

    (a) Lavington, Simon., NRDC and The Case for a British Supercomputer, 1956–1960.; (b) Lavington, Simon., Timeline of the MUSE/Atlas Project at Manchester University, 1955–1971. (c) Lavington, Simon., et al., Tony Brooker and the Atlas Compiler.

  24. 24.

    (a) Lavington, Simon., NRDC and The Case for a British Supercomputer, 1956–1960.; (b) Lavington, Simon., Timeline of the MUSE/Atlas Project at Manchester University, 1955–1971. (c) Lavington, Simon., et al., Tony Brooker and the Atlas Compiler.

  25. 25.

    (a) Lavington, Simon., NRDC and The Case for a British Supercomputer, 1956–1960.; (b) Lavington, Simon., Timeline of the MUSE/Atlas Project at Manchester University, 1955–1971. (c) Lavington, Simon., et al., Tony Brooker and the Atlas Compiler.

  26. 26.

    Campbell-Kelly, M. 1989. ICL: A Business and Technical History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853918-5.

  27. 27.

    Zielinsky, Siegfried, and David Link. 2006. There Must Be an Angel: On the Beginnings of the Arithmetics of Rays. In Variantology 2, On deep time relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies, 15–42. Published Cologne: Konig.

References

  • Brooker, R.A. 1955. An Attempt to Simplify Coding for the Manchester Electronic Computer. British Journal of Applied Physics 6: 307–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell-Kelly, Martin. 1980. Programming the Mark I: Early Programming Activity at the University of Manchester. Annals of the History of Computing 2 (2): 130–168.

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell-Kelly, M. 1989. ICL: A Business and Technical History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853918-5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinds, Mavis K. 1981. Computer Story. The Meteorological Office Magazine 110 (1304): 69–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilburn, T., D.B.G. Edwards, and G.E. Thomas. 1956. The Manchester University Mark II Digital Computing Machine. Proceedings of IEE 103 (Part B, Supp. 1–3): 247–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laithwaite, E.R. 1950. An Automatically Accessible Three-Dimensional Library for use with Digital Computing Machines. M.Sc. thesis, University of Manchester, Faculty of Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavington, Simon. 2012a. NRDC and The Case for a British Supercomputer, 1956–1960, 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavington, Simon. 2012b. Timeline of the MUSE/Atlas Project at Manchester University, 1955–1971, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavington, Simon., et al. 2016. Tony Brooker and the Atlas Compiler, 29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lonsdale, K., and E.T. Warberton. 1956. Mercury: A High-Speed Digital Computer. Proceedings of IEE 103 (Part B, Supp. 1–3): 483–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard, H.O., and J. Mol. 2001. Computational Chemistry in the 1950s. Graphics Modelings 19 (6): 623–627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sumner, F.H.(Frank). 1994. Memories of the Manchester Mark I. Resurrection 10: 9–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, G.E.(Tommy). 1998. The Significance of Brooker’s Autocodes in Taking the Early Manchester Machines into the Market (1954–1960).

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, F.C. 1955. Internal Report on the Computing Machine Running Costs. Manchester: University of Manchester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, F.C. 1956. Introductory lecture: IEE Convention on digital computers. Proceedings of IEE 103 (Part B, Supp. 1–3): 3–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, F.C., E.R. Laithwaite, and L.S. Piggott. 1957. Brushless Variable-Speed Induction Motors. Proceedings of IEE 104 (14): 102–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zielinsky, Siegfried, and David Link. 2006. There Must Be an Angel: On the Beginnings of the Arithmetics of Rays. In Variantology 2, On deep time relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies, 15–42. Published Cologne: Konig.

    Google Scholar 

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  1. School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, UK

    Simon Lavington

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Lavington, S. (2019). What Came Next?. In: Early Computing in Britain. History of Computing. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15103-4_13

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15103-4_13

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