Abstract
The chapter provides an account of general Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) processes and applications, and their role in the developing exploitation of deep-sea mineral resources. It includes aspects such as definitions, the position of EIA as part of a larger process, the structure and content of an EIS and the role of risk assessment in the EIA and considers some of the key elements specific to deep-sea mining that need to be addressed as potential mining progresses from exploration to future exploitation. Elements identified by the ISA, and examples from national assessments, are also reviewed briefly to determine what will be required in future.
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Acknowledgements
I am grateful to many colleagues working in the area of deep-sea science and management for wide-ranging discussions in recent years on the needs of environmental assessment for deep-sea mining.
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Appendix 1: Summary Table of Recommended Scientific Methodologies, Including the Aspects to Be Covered During the Survey Programme, Parameters to Be Measured and Appropriate Methods to Consider Given the Local Environmental Conditions (From Swaddling et al. 2016)
Appendix 1: Summary Table of Recommended Scientific Methodologies, Including the Aspects to Be Covered During the Survey Programme, Parameters to Be Measured and Appropriate Methods to Consider Given the Local Environmental Conditions (From Swaddling et al. 2016)
Aspect | Reason | Main parameters | Sampling | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Geology | Topography | Seabed characteristics, classification of habitats for assessment, survey stratification, selection of test and control areas | Bathymetry, morphometry, seafloor type | Shipboard/towed acoustic systems, optical sensors, dredges, box corer, drilling equipment |
Backscatter | Seabed characteristics, classification of habitats for assessment, survey stratification, selection of test and control areas | Acoustic reflectivity | Shipboard/towed acoustic systems; side-scan sonar, hyperspectral imaging | |
Sub-seafloor | Petrology, geochemistry and mineralogy for resource characterization | Penetration layers, rock properties, mineral and chemical composition | Seismic, drilling, rock sampling (dredges, coring) | |
Sediment characteristics | Sediment properties | Sediment plume dynamics, classification of habitats | Substrate type, sediment and pore water measurements: water content, grain size, specific gravity, porosity, depth of toxic layer, carbon content, chemical composition (trace and heavy metals) | Sediment cores (box corer or mulitcorer) |
Bioturbation rates | Natural mixing of sediments | Bioturbation depth, faunal zonation, Pb210 activity | Sediment cores (box corer or mulitcorer) | |
Sedimentation rates | Distribution and concentration of natural suspension, settlement rates | Particle flux, suspended particle concentrations, settlement rates | Moorings and sediment traps | |
Pelagic community | Deepwater pelagic (plankton and nekton) | Impacts of sediment plume and discharges on midwater communities, vertical migrators, and near-bottom hyper-benthos | Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters) | Opening/closing nets for plankton (remotely operated vehicle (ROV) also possible). Pelagic trawls/commercial records for fish |
Surface fauna | Effects of surface discharges, presence of vessels and equipment | Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters) | Opening/closing nets, surface plankton nets, remote-sensed data | |
Marine mammals/sea birds | Effects of surface discharges, presence of vessels and equipment | Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters) | Marine mammal observer protocols | |
Seafloor community | Megafauna | Impacts on benthic communities | Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters) | Photographic surveys from ROV/towed camera; direct sampling from dredge/sled/trawl/ROV |
Macrofauna | Impacts on benthic communities | Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters) | Muliticorer or box corer, and epibenthic sled; photographic surveys from ROV/towed camera; direct sampling from dredge/sled/trawl/ROV | |
Meiofauna | Impacts on benthic communities | Biodiversity, distribution, abundance | Multicorer or box corer; direct sampling from dredge/sled/trawl/ROV | |
Microfauna | Impacts on benthic communities | Biodiversity, distribution, abundance | Sediment cores (box corer or mulitcorer) | |
Specific resource fauna | Endemic species or communities, sensitive habitats (including biogenic habitats) | Species composition, distribution, abundance | ROV/towed camera, epibenthic sled; direct sampling by ROV, box corer for nodule environments | |
Scavenger/demersal fish | Impacts on benthic communities | Species composition, distribution, abundance | Baited lander, fish trawls, traps, ROV observations | |
Ecotoxicity | Impacts of heavy metals/contaminants on benthic communities, accumulation through food chain potential | Tissue samples from representative and abundant fauna | Various direct sampling methods (as above) | |
Physical oceanography | Currents | Dispersal of impacts, biological connectivity | Current speed, direction, depth variation, tidal dynamics, sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface height (SSH), ocean colour | Conductivity temperature depth profiler (CTD), current meters, acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), remote-sensed data, profiling moorings |
Hydrodynamic modelling | Dispersal of impacts, sediment plume dynamics, biological connectivity | Oceanographic parameters (temperature, salinity, current flow and direction), turbulence, turbidity, bathymetry | Various models applicable, e.g. Regional Ocean Modelling System (ROMS), Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM), CORMIX (discharges) | |
Chemical oceanography | Water quality | Effects of discharges, sediment plume | Chemical composition (including heavy metals and toxic contaminants), turbidity, suspended sediment, dissolved oxygen, pH | Water samples (from CTD), surface remote-sensed data, core samples, nephelometer, transmissometer, optical backscatter sensors |
Visual characteristics | Effects of discharges, sediment plume | Optical backscatter, light attenuation, black disc distance | Transmissometer, optical backscatter sensors, remote sensing | |
Bottom water chemistry | Effects of sediment/rock disturbance, release of chemicals, effluent discharge | Elutriation for chemical and toxicity testing, pH, trace and heavy metal concentrations, dissolved oxygen | Water samplers (CTD-Niskin bottles), core samples | |
Water column chemistry | Effects on chemical characteristics due to sediment plume and discharges | Nutrients (P, N, Si, C), dissolved oxygen, trace and heavy metal concentrations | Water samplers (CTD-Niskin bottles) |
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Clark, M.R. (2019). The Development of Environmental Impact Assessments for Deep-Sea Mining. In: Sharma, R. (eds) Environmental Issues of Deep-Sea Mining. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12696-4_16
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