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Knocking and Combustion Noise Analysis

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Reciprocating Engine Combustion Diagnostics

Part of the book series: Mechanical Engineering Series ((MES))

Abstract

Knock is an abnormal and stochastic combustion phenomenon which needs detailed analysis because it governs the power density of engine, fuel consumption (engine efficiency), and engine durability, as well as noise and emission characteristics. Typically, compression ratio of spark ignition (SI) engine is limited by knock characteristics or knock propensity. This chapter discusses the knock fundamentals including modes of knock, onset of knock, characteristic knock frequencies, and super-knock. The super-knock is an extremely intense knock phenomenon which limits the engine turbocharging and downsizing proposed for improving the fuel conversion efficiency in SI engine. Accurate and repeatable measurement of engine knock is an important aspect of knock analysis and control. In-cylinder pressure-based techniques are considered as the most reliable method for knock detection; however, installation of pressure transducers in the combustion chamber is both difficult and expensive. This chapter presents the detailed cylinder pressure-based knock detection and analysis methods. Cylinder pressure- and heat release-based knock intensity indices (in time and frequency domain) along with their signal processing methods are discussed. Different methods of knock characterization/detection including statistical methods, stochastic method, and wavelets are also discussed. To fulfill the requirement of a low-cost and nonintrusive alternative method, knock detection using ion current sensors, engine vibrations, and microphones is used. Reduction of combustion noise is required as the part of engine development process due to customer demands. The multiple degrees of freedom in engine control and calibration provides more scope to influence combustion noise, which is required to be measured first, to control effectively. This chapter presents the discussion on the combustion noise estimation from the in-cylinder pressure measurements. Different combustion noise metrics are discussed along with their calculation algorithms and signal processing techniques.

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Abbreviations

AEFD:

Average energy in frequency domain

AEHR:

Average energy of the heat release

AEHRO:

Average energy of heat release oscillations

ATDC:

After top dead center

BDC:

Bottom dead center

BTDC:

Before top dead center

CA:

Crank angle

CAD:

Crank angle degree

CDC:

Convention diesel combustion

CDF:

Cumulative distribution function

CI:

Compression ignition

CNL:

Combustion noise level

COV:

Coefficient of variation

CPL:

Cylinder pressure level

dB:

Decibel

DI:

Direct injection

DISI:

Direct injection spark ignition

DKI:

Dimensionless knock indicator

DMP:

Derivative at maximum pressure position

EGR:

Exhaust gas recirculation

EMD:

Empirical mode decomposition

EOC:

End of combustion

FFT:

Fast Fourier transform

GCI:

Gasoline compression ignition

GIMEP:

Gross indicated mean effective pressure

HCCI:

Homogeneous charge compression ignition

HRR:

Heat release rate

ID:

Ignition delay

IMEP:

Indicated mean effective pressure

IMPG:

Integral of modulus of pressure gradient

IMPO:

Integral of the modulus of pressure oscillations

IVC:

Intake valve closing

KDI:

Knocking damage index

KI:

Knock intensity

KI1:

Knocking index

KLSA:

Knock-limited spark advance

KO:

Knock onset

LSPI:

Low-speed preignition

MAHRO:

Maximum amplitude of heat release oscillations

MAPO:

Maximum amplitude of pressure oscillations

MIAA:

Main injection advanced angle

MNL:

Mechanical noise level

MON:

Motor octane number

MPRR:

Maximum pressure rise rate

NCS:

Noise-canceling spike

NVH:

Noise vibration and harshness

OH:

Hydroxyl radical

OI:

Octane index

ON:

Octane number

ON:

Overall noise

PCCI:

Premixed charge compression ignition

PDF:

Probability density function

PFI:

Port fuel injection

PIC:

Pilot injection combustion

PPC:

Partially premixed combustion

PPRR:

Peak pressure rise rate

PRF:

Primary reference fuel

PRR:

Pressure rise rate

PTP:

Peak to peak

RCCI:

Reactivity controlled compression ignition

RI:

Ringing intensity

RMS:

Root mean square

ROHRu:

Rate of heat release in unburnt charge

RON:

Research octane number

RSD:

Relative standard deviation

S:

Sensitivity

SA:

Structure attenuation

SACI:

Spark-assisted compression ignition

SEHRO:

Signal energy of heat release oscillations

SEPO:

Signal energy of pressure oscillations

SER:

Signal energy ratio

SI:

Spark ignition

SNR:

Signal-to-noise ratio

SPL:

Sound pressure level

ST:

Spark timing

STFT:

Short-time Fourier transform

TDC:

Top dead center

TN:

Toluene number

TRF:

Toluene reference fuels

TVE:

Threshold value exceeded

WD:

Wigner distribution

A :

Area of the reaction front

a :

Speed of sound

B i,j :

Bessel constant

D :

Cylinder diameter

E res :

Signal energy of the resonance pressure oscillations

f i,j :

Resonance frequency

f Nyq :

Nyquist frequency

f s :

Sampling frequency

I 1 :

Combustion indicator

I 2 :

Resonance indicator

n idle :

Idle engine speed

P :

Pressure

p bp :

Band-pass filtered pressure

P in :

Intake pressure

P max :

Maximum pressure

P RMS :

Root mean square (RMS) value of the filtered pressure

p ub :

Unburned gas pressure

R 2 :

Correlation coefficient

T :

Temperature

T comp15 :

Compression pressure of 15 bar

t IVC :

Time of intake valve closing

t KNOCK :

Time of knock onset

T max :

Maximum temperature

T ub :

Unburned temperature

u a :

Velocity relative to the unburned gas

V :

Volume

τ :

Autoignition delay time

θ :

Crank angle position

ε :

Dimensionless reactivity parameter of hot spot

ξ :

Dimensionless resonance parameter

μ :

Mean

γ :

Specific heat ratio

σ :

Standard deviation

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, Punjab, India

    Rakesh Kumar Maurya

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Discussion/Investigation Questions

Discussion/Investigation Questions

  1. 1.

    Discuss the difference between normal and abnormal combustion in spark ignition engine. Describe the various factors responsible for abnormal combustion in SI engine.

  2. 2.

    Describe the term “knock” in a reciprocating engine. Discuss the possible reasons for engine knocking in SI engine, and explain the adverse effects of engine knocking over a long period.

  3. 3.

    Write the engine or operating variables affecting the temperature and density of the unburned charge toward the end of combustion in SI engine.

  4. 4.

    Discuss the factors responsible for cycle-to-cycle variations in the engine knocking. Describe the typical distribution of knock intensity on a cyclic basis.

  5. 5.

    A PFI gasoline SI engine is designed to operate at compression ratio 9 using gasoline with octane number (ON) 90 (typical gasoline). Discuss the expected problems that arise due to the increase in compression ratio to 12 (with modified engine) while running at the same fuel. Write the possible solution to the expected problems. Can ethanol or methanol be used on the modified engine at a compression ratio of 12?

  6. 6.

    Discuss the methods that can be used for the detection of knock onset in SI engine. Explain the merit and limitations of the methods.

  7. 7.

    Discuss the different modes of knock combustion in the engines. Write the different parameters affecting the transition of knock mode from deflagration to developing detonation.

  8. 8.

    Why measurement and characterization of knocking are important in internal combustion engines? Discuss the reason for knocking in SI, CI, and LTC (HCCI, RCCI, etc.) modes of engine operation. Draw a typical knocking cylinder pressure curve for all three modes of engine combustion.

  9. 9.

    What is engine super-knock? Discuss reasons for super-knock and method of characterization and mitigation of super-knock.

  10. 10.

    Three possible positions of the spark plug (black circle) in a spark ignition (SI) engine are shown Fig. P9.1. Identify the intake and exhaust valves in the configuration shown. Arrange three configurations (A, B, and C) in ascending order for octane number (ON) of fuel required to run the SI engine in each configuration, and justify your answer with suitable reasons.

  11. 11.

    Based on the two different designs of combustion chambers shown in Fig. P9.2, answer the following questions: (a) when combustion chamber design is changed from A to B, explain whether combustion rate will be faster, slower, or about the same rate. Justify your answer. (b) Which combustion chamber requires higher octane number fuel? If both engines are running on the same fuel, which engine can be operated at a higher compression ratio? Justify your answers.

  12. 12.

    You are given the engine map (Fig. P9.3) for a conventional homogeneous charge SI engine. (a) Looking at the engine map, identify whether the engine is naturally aspirated or it is turbocharged/supercharged. Mark the regions in the map where engine is most (highest) and least susceptible to knocking combustion. Justify your answers for the highest and lowest susceptibility toward knocking. (b) Assume engine is operating in a region susceptible to knocking, suggest two ways (actions to be performed) to run the engine in the non-knocking combustion.

  13. 13.

    Consider an SI engine in which the spark timing is maintained at the same crank angle and the air-fuel mixture is changed from stoichiometric to lean. What happens to the peak flame temperature as the air-fuel ratio is made lean from stoichiometric? Explain your answer. What would you expect to happen to the exhaust temperature for this situation? What about the tendency to knocking in such conditions?

  14. 14.

    Write the effect of engine operating variables on ignition, flame propagation, and knocking tendency by filling in the blanks in the Table P9.1 using the symbols provided. Discuss and justify your answers in terms of the governing phenomena or the factors responsible to it.

  15. 15.

    Spark ignition engines’ efficiency is mainly limited by three major factors, namely, knocking, fuel enrichment, and throttling. Figure P9.4 depicts the full-load curve of SI engine. Schematically identify zones corresponding to knocking, fuel enrichment, and throttling on engine operating map. You can draw few contour lines in the identified zones.

  16. 16.

    Knocking in SI engines is affected by several engine and operating parameters. Fill the following Table P9.2 showing the effect of increasing engine and operating variables on knock. Discuss these whether the engine parameters can be controlled by the engine operator or ECU to mitigate the knocking conditions.

  17. 17.

    Discuss the differences in knocking in CI and SI engines. Write the typical characteristics of the parameters given in table to reduce the knocking tendency in SI and CI engines. Fill the Table P9.3 with qualitative values such as low/high and long/short.

  18. 18.

    Describe the difference between a conventional knock and super-knock. Discuss the sources of super-knock and mode of combustion of super-knock in SI engine.

  19. 19.

    Discuss the sources of preignition in SI engine. Write the possible methods to avoid the preignition in reciprocating SI engine. Explain whether preignition always leads to knocking, and discuss the severity of preignition.

  20. 20.

    Write the effect of knocking (over a long period of time) on engine performance and its state. Discuss the different methods of knock detection in combustion engines. How you can differentiate the pressure oscillations during a weak knock and pressure oscillation due to the non-flush mounting of the sensor (pipe oscillations).

  21. 21.

    Discuss the phenomena of acoustic wave generation during knocking conditions, and also write the equation to determine the frequency of acoustic mode oscillation. Explain why the axial mode of oscillations is typically not observed in reciprocating engines.

  22. 22.

    Calculate the characteristic frequency of oscillation modes: First circumferential (1,0), second circumferential (2,0), third circumferential (3,0), and first radial (0,1) with corresponding Bessel constants 1.841, 3.054, 4.201, and 3.832, respectively. Compute the frequency corresponding to temperatures 2000 K, 2500 K, and 3000 K. Discuss the effect of the equivalence ratio of the charge on the frequency of oscillations.

  23. 23.

    Discuss the different knock indices based on in-cylinder pressure and heat release used for characterization of knock in internal combustion engines.

  24. 24.

    Discuss how wavelets can be used for characterization of engine knocking under different engine operating conditions.

  25. 25.

    Assume a gasoline SI engine having bore 60 mm and displacement volume of 400 cc working on the stoichiometric mixture with spark timing 15° before TDC. The spark plug is located at the center of the engine head. Assuming constant turbulent flame speed of 8.56 m/s, determine whether or not engine knocking will occur in the combustion chamber. Unburned gas temperature and pressure can be assumed to be constant throughout combustion with value 1650 K and 5 bar, respectively. An empirical relation for autoignition delay of a stoichiometric gasoline-air mixture is given as

    $$ {\tau}_{\mathrm{ignition}\kern0.34em \mathrm{delay}}\left[\mathrm{ms}\right]=0.08\cdot \frac{1}{P^{1.5}\left[\mathrm{MPa}\right]}\exp \left(\frac{3800}{T\left[K\right]}\right) $$

    Clearly state your assumptions if any.

  26. 26.

    Discuss how the setting of knock threshold limits the efficiency of the engine. Describe the methods used for setting the knock threshold and how it can be optimized.

  27. 27.

    Fill the Table P9.4 by discussing the effect of particle and operating condition on preignition in SI engine. Write the effect on increasing the value of variable on preignition (increase or decrease) along with the mechanism responsible for preignition.

  28. 28.

    Discuss the different sensing methodologies of engine knock in modern SI engine. Describe the merits and demerits of the method. Write the typical factors you will consider for selecting the knock detection methods.

  29. 29.

    Discuss the method for combustion noise level assessment in engines by means of in-cylinder pressure components? Explain various indices used for combustion noise determination base on cylinder pressure data.

Fig. P9.1
figure 54

Different spark plug installation configuration

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Fig. P9.2
figure 55

Effect of piston bowl on combustion characteristics in SI engine

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Fig. P9.3
figure 56

Conventional SI engine map (adapted from [2])

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Table P9.1 Effect of ignition- and engine-related variables on flame propagation and knocking
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Fig. P9.4
figure 57

Full-load torque curve of a SI engine

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Table P9.2 Effect of engine parameters on knock in conventional SI engine
Full size table
Table P9.3 Characteristics tending to reduce engine knocking conditions
Full size table
Table P9.4 Effect on preignition in SI engine
Full size table

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Maurya, R.K. (2019). Knocking and Combustion Noise Analysis. In: Reciprocating Engine Combustion Diagnostics. Mechanical Engineering Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11954-6_9

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11954-6_9

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