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The Development of the Mandates of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and the Conference on Disarmament (CD) and the Collaboration Between the Forums

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The United Nations and Space Security

Part of the book series: Studies in Space Policy ((STUDSPACE,volume 21))

Abstract

The respective mandates initially given to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and the Conference on Disarmament (CD) leave a possible gap in the discussion of space matters internationally, especially since the discussion and deliberation of space matters internationally has evolved since the establishment of the forums. The purpose of this chapter is to focus on this development. In particular, it focuses on the evolution of the mandates of the two forums from their respective establishment until the present and the relations and collaboration between the forums. To frame the evolution of the discussion of space matters internationally, this chapter first gives a basic historical background overview. This overview is not meant to be exhaustive and all-encompassing but is intended to give a better frame of reference for the analysis that will follow.

The overview discusses the USSR–U.S. cold war and space race, European integration and space cooperation and the position of the People’s Republic of China within the UN. Thereafter, it examines the development of the mandate of COPUOS. This examination shows that just after the establishment of COPUOS, three interpretations of the mandate existed: first, that all military uses of outer space should be discussed in the UN disarmament framework and that non-military uses of outer space should be discussed in COPUOS; second, that ‘arms military’ uses of outer space should be discussed in the disarmament framework but that ‘non-arms military uses’ and non-military uses should be discussed in COPUOS; and third, that pure disarmament issues should be discussed in the disarmament framework but that, in addition to the ‘non-arms military uses’ and non-military uses, COPUOS is also mandated to discuss the limitation of the use of outer space to ensure that it is used exclusively for peaceful purposes.

During the deliberations on the five UN Space Treaties, these interpretations seemed to change, with the last interpretation prevailing. This is illustrated by the inclusion of Article IV OST and statements made by states. Following the adoption of Resolution S-10/2, however, the diverging interpretations reappeared. In addition, a fourth interpretation arose that called for close-knit cooperation between COPUOS and the CD. These four interpretations are still the status quo on the mandate of COPUOS. This chapter then examines the development of the mandate of the CD with respect to the discussion of outer space and shows that the CD, just like COPUOS, discusses ‘non-arms military’ uses of outer space and even exceeds its mandate by discussing certain peaceful uses of outer space. Lastly, the chapter reflects on the interaction and collaboration between the two forums, concluding that such interaction and collaboration is nearly non-existent.

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Notes

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    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Records of the Twenty-Fourth Meeting’ (22 November 1963) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.24, 51–55.

  136. 136.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Records of the Twenty-Fourth Meeting’ (22 November 1963) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.24, 52.

  137. 137.

    UNGA Res 110 (II) (3 November 1947) UN Doc A/RES/2/110.

  138. 138.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 1342nd Meeting’ (2 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1342, 161.

  139. 139.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 1342nd Meeting’ (2 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1342, 161.

  140. 140.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session), ‘Summary Record of the 1345th Meeting’ (5 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1345, 184.

  141. 141.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session), ‘Summary Record of the 1345th Meeting’ (5 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1345, 184.

  142. 142.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 1342nd Meeting’ (2 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1342, 161.

  143. 143.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 1342nd Meeting’ (2 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1342, 162.

  144. 144.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session), ‘Summary Record of the 1343rd Meeting’ (3 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1343, 168.

  145. 145.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session), ‘Summary Record of the 1343rd Meeting’ (3 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1343, 168.

  146. 146.

    UNGA First Committee (18th Session), ‘Summary Record of the 1343rd Meeting’ (3 December 1963) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1343, 168.

  147. 147.

    UNGA Res 1962 (XVIII) (13 December 1963).

  148. 148.

    UNGA Res 1963 (XVIII) (13 December 1963).

  149. 149.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 2.

  150. 150.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 22.

  151. 151.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 45.

  152. 152.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 48.

  153. 153.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 97 and 102.

  154. 154.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 106.

  155. 155.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 108.

  156. 156.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Twenty-Seventh Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.27, 14.

  157. 157.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Twenty-Seventh Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.27, 14.

  158. 158.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Twenty-Eighth Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.28, 3.

  159. 159.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Twenty-Ninth Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.29, 11.

  160. 160.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Thirtieth Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.30, 12.

  161. 161.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Thirty-First Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.31, 20.

  162. 162.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the Thirty-First Meeting’ (8 December 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.31, 20.

  163. 163.

    UNGA First Committee (20th Session) ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (12 October 1965) UN Doc A/6042, par. 17.

  164. 164.

    UNGA First Committee (20th Session) ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (12 October 1965) UN Doc A/6042, par. 17.

  165. 165.

    UNGA First Committee (20th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 1421st’ (18 December 1965) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1421, 425 & 427.

  166. 166.

    UNGA ‘Report of the First Committee’ UN GOAR 20th Session UN Doc A/6212 (20 December 1965).

  167. 167.

    UNGA First Committee (20th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 1422nd Meeting’ (20 December 1965) UN Doc A/C.1/SR.1422, 429.

  168. 168.

    UNGA ‘Letter Dated 9 May 1966 from The Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6327 (10 May 1966).

  169. 169.

    UNGA ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Request for the Inclusion of an Item in the Provisional Agenda of the Twenty-First Session’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6341 (31 May 1966).

  170. 170.

    UNGA ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Request for the Inclusion of an Item in the Provisional Agenda of the Twenty-First Session’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6341 (31 May 1966), 2.

  171. 171.

    UNGA ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Request for the Inclusion of an Item in the Provisional Agenda of the Twenty-First Session’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6341 (31 May 1966), 2.

  172. 172.

    UNGA ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Request for the Inclusion of an Item in the Provisional Agenda of the Twenty-First Session’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6341 (31 May 1966), 2.

  173. 173.

    UNGA ‘Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Request for the Inclusion of an Item in the Provisional Agenda of the Twenty-First Session’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6341 (31 May 1966), 2.

  174. 174.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Draft Treaty Governing the Exploration of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies’ (17 June 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/32, Article 9–10.

  175. 175.

    UNGA ‘Letter Dated 16 June 1966 From the Permanent Representative of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6352 (16 June 1966), Article IV.

  176. 176.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Seventh Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.57, 4.

  177. 177.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Seventh Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.57, 6.

  178. 178.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Seventh Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.57, 11.

  179. 179.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Seventh Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.57, 11.

  180. 180.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Seventh Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.57, 18–20.

  181. 181.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Eight Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.58, 4.

  182. 182.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Eight Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.58, 6.

  183. 183.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Eight Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.58, 8.

  184. 184.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Ninth Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.59, 2–3.

  185. 185.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Ninth Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.59, 2–3.

  186. 186.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 2–3.

  187. 187.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 4.

  188. 188.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 4.

  189. 189.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixtieth Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.60, 2–3.

  190. 190.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 7.

  191. 191.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 8.

  192. 192.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Fifth Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.65, 9.

  193. 193.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Fifth Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.65, 10.

  194. 194.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Sixth Meeting’ (21 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.66.

  195. 195.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Seventy-Third Meeting’ (19 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.73, 14.

  196. 196.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-Committee on the Work of Its Fifth Session (12 July–4 August and 12–16 September 1966) to the Committee of the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (16 September 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/35 Annex II, 5.

  197. 197.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-Committee on the Work of Its Fifth Session (12 July–4 August and 12–16 September 1966) to the Committee of the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (16 September 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/35 Annex II, 5.

  198. 198.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Verbatim Record of the Forty-Fourth Meeting’ (25 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.44, 20.

  199. 199.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Verbatim Record of the Forty-Fourth Meeting’ (25 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.44, 39–40.

  200. 200.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (22 September 1966) UN Doc A/6431.

  201. 201.

    UNGA ‘United States of America: Request for the Inclusion of an Additional Item in the Agenda of the Twenty-First Session’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6392 (19 September 1966).

  202. 202.

    UNGA ‘Letter Dated 4 October 1966 from the Representative of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to the Secretary-General’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/6532/REV.1 (5 October 1966).

  203. 203.

    UNGA First Committee (21st Session) ‘Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chad, Czechoslovakia, Dahomey, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Nepal, Niger, Poland, Romania, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Sweden, Turkey, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America and Uruguay: draft resolution’ (15 December 1966) UN Doc A/C.1/L.396.

  204. 204.

    UNGA First Committee (21st Session) ‘Verbatim Record of Fourteen Hundred and Ninety-Second Meeting’ (27 January 1962) UN Doc A/C.1/PV.1492, 428.

  205. 205.

    UNGA First Committee (21st Session) ‘Verbatim Record of Fourteen Hundred and Ninety-Second Meeting’ (27 January 1962) UN Doc A/C.1/PV.1492, 430.

  206. 206.

    UNGA First Committee (21st Session) ‘Verbatim Record of Fourteen Hundred and Ninety-Second Meeting’ (27 January 1962) UN Doc A/C.1/PV.1492, 432.

  207. 207.

    UNGA First Committee (21st Session) ‘Report of the First Committee’ (17 December 1966) UN Doc A/6621, 26.

  208. 208.

    UNGA ‘Provisional Verbatim Record of the Fourteen Hundred and Ninety-Ninth Plenary Meeting’ UN GOAR 21st Session UN Doc A/PV.1499 (19 December 1966), 71.

  209. 209.

    UNGA Res 2222 (XXI) Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (19 December 1966).

  210. 210.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GAOR 17th Session UN Doc A/5181 Annex I–B (27 September 1962), Article 7.

  211. 211.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GAOR 17th Session UN Doc A/5181 Annex I–C (27 September 1962).

  212. 212.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Eighth Meeting’ (21 August 1962) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.8, 6.

  213. 213.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Ninth Meeting’ (21 August 1962) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.9, 5.

  214. 214.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Ninth Meeting’ (21 August 1962) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.9, 5.

  215. 215.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Eleventh Meeting’ (21 August 1962) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.11, 5.

  216. 216.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GAOR 17th Session UN Doc A/5181 (27 September 1962), 5.

  217. 217.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Report of the Legal Sub-Committee on the Work of Its Second Session (16 April–3 May 1963) to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (6 May 1963) UN Doc A/AC.105/12 Annex I, 4.

  218. 218.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 18th Session UN Doc A/5449 (24 September 1963), par. 19.

  219. 219.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘United States: Proposal – International Agreement on Assistance to and Return of Astronauts and Objects Launched into Outer Space’ (9 March 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.9.

  220. 220.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 33.

  221. 221.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the 29th to 37th Meetings Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 9 to 26 March 1964’ (24 August 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.29–37, 40.

  222. 222.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-Committee on the Work of Its Third Session (9–26 March 1964) to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (26 March 1964) A/AC.105/19/Annex I, 11–12.

  223. 223.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-First Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.41, 4.

  224. 224.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Second Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.42, 5.

  225. 225.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Second Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.42, 13.

  226. 226.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Second Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.42, 8–9, 9, 13.

  227. 227.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Sixth Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.46, 3.

  228. 228.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Sixth Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.46, 4.

  229. 229.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Sixth Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.46, 3.

  230. 230.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Forty-Seventh Meeting’ (30 November 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.47, 9.

  231. 231.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-Committee on the Work of Its Fourth Session (20 September–1 October 1965) to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (1 October 1965) UN Doc A/AC.105/29, 2.

  232. 232.

    UNGA Res 2222(XXI) Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (19 December 1966).

  233. 233.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘USSR: Revised Draft – Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts in the Event of Accident or Emergency Landing’ (19 June 1967) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.18 | UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Seventy-Sixth Meeting’ (13 November 1967) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.76, 5.

  234. 234.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Assistance to and Return of Astronauts and Space Objects Revised Australian – Canadian Proposal Submitted as a Working Paper’ (21 June 1967) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.20.

  235. 235.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Provisional Verbatim Record of the Forty-Ninth Meeting’ (13 September 1967) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.49, 36.

  236. 236.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 22nd Session UN Doc A/6804 (27 September 1967).

  237. 237.

    UNGA Res 2260(XXII) ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (3 November 1967) | UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Eighty-Sixth Meeting’ (9 February 1968) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.86, 3.

  238. 238.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Eighty-Sixth Meeting’ (9 February 1968) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.86, 3.

  239. 239.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Draft Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space’ (12 December 1967) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.28.

  240. 240.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the Eighty-Sixth Meeting’ (9 February 1968) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.86, 11.

  241. 241.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-Committee on the Work of Its Special Session (14–15 December 1967) to the Committee to the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (15 December 1967) UN Doc A/AC.105/43.

  242. 242.

    UNGA Res 2345 (XXII) Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (19 December 1967).

  243. 243.

    UNCOPUOS ‘United States of America: Draft Proposal on Liability for Space Vehicle Accidents’ (11 September 1962) UN Doc A/AC.105/L.5 | UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Hungary Proposed Draft Agreement: Agreement Concerning Liability for Damage Caused by the Launching of Objects into Outer Space’ (16 March 1964) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.10.

  244. 244.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘France: Proposal – Draft Convention Concerning the Registration of Objects Launched into Space for the Exploration of Use of Outer Space’ (18 June 1968) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.45.

  245. 245.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Canada: Draft Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space’ (4 April 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.82.

  246. 246.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘United States of America: Proposal – Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space’ (19 March 1973) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.85.

  247. 247.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘United States of America: Proposal – Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space’ (19 March 1973) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.85, 3.

  248. 248.

    Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (adopted 12 November 1974, entered into force 15 September 1976) 1023 UNTS 15.

  249. 249.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Letter dated 16 June 1966 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America addressed to the Chairman of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (17 June 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/32.

  250. 250.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Letter dated 16 June 1966 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America addressed to the Chairman of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (17 June 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/32, 2.

  251. 251.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Eighth Session (9 June–4 July 1969) to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (4 July 1969) UN Doc A/AC.105/58, 3.

  252. 252.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Eighth Session (9 June–4 July 1969) to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (4 July 1969) UN Doc A/AC.105/58, 5.

  253. 253.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Ninth Session (8 June–3 July 1970) to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (3 July 1970) UN Doc A/AC.105/85 Annex II, 1–2.

  254. 254.

    UNGA First Committee (26th Session) ‘USSR: Draft Treaty Concerning the Moon’ (5 November 1971) UN Doc A/C.1/L.568.

  255. 255.

    UNGA First Committee (26th Session) ‘USSR: Draft Treaty Concerning the Moon’ (5 November 1971) UN Doc A/C.1/L.568, 1–2.

  256. 256.

    UNGA First Committee (26th Session) ‘USSR: Draft Treaty Concerning the Moon’ (5 November 1971) UN Doc A/C.1/L.568, 2.

  257. 257.

    UNGA First Committee (26th Session) ‘Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, India, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Sweden and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: draft resolution’ (8 November 1971) UN Doc A/C.1/L.572.

  258. 258.

    UNGA Res 2779 (XXVI) ‘Preparation of an International Treaty Concerning the Moon’ (29 November 1971) UN Doc A/RES/2779 (XXIV).

  259. 259.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the One Hundred and Eighty-Seventh to the One Hundred Ninety-First Meetings’ (12 July 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.187–191, 8.

  260. 260.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the One Hundred and Eighty-Seventh to the One Hundred Ninety-First Meetings’ (12 July 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.187–191, 19 and 21.

  261. 261.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the One Hundred and Eighty-Seventh to the One Hundred Ninety-First Meetings’ (12 July 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.187–191, 23.

  262. 262.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Eleventh Session’ (10 April–5 May 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/101, 5–8.

  263. 263.

    UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the One Hundred and Tenth Meeting’ (5 September 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.110 | UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the One Hundred and Twelfth Meeting’ (6 September 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.112 | UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the One Hundred and Thirteenth Meeting’ (7 September 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.113 | UNCOPUOS ‘Verbatim Record of the One Hundred and Fifteenth Meeting’ (11 September 1972) UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.115.

  264. 264.

    UNGA First Committee (27th Session) ‘Provisional Verbatim Record of the Eighteen Hundred and Sixty-First Meeting’-‘Provisional Verbatim Record of the Eighteen Hundred and Seventy-First Meeting’ (12 October–25 October 1972) UN Doc A/C.1/PV.1861-PV.1871.

  265. 265.

    UNGA Res 2915 (XXVII) (9 November 1972) UN Doc A/RES/2915 (XXVII).

  266. 266.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Draft Treaty Relating to the Moon – Bulgaria: Working Paper’ (8 May 1974) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/L.93.

  267. 267.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 267th Meeting’ (18 March 1977) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.267, 2.

  268. 268.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 285th Meeting’ (15 March 1978) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.285, 2.

  269. 269.

    Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 11 July 1984) 1363 UNTS 3.

  270. 270.

    UNGA Res 35/68 ‘Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies’ (5 December 1979) UN Doc A/RES/34/68.

  271. 271.

    UNGA Res S-10/2 ‘Final Document of the Tenth Special Session of the General Assembly’ (28 June 1978) UN Doc A/RES/S-10/2, par. 80 | UNGA ‘Report of the Disarmament Commission’ UN GAOR 36th Session Supp 42 UN Doc A/36/42 (2 July 1981), par. 19.

  272. 272.

    Frans von der Dunk, ‘International Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk and Fabio Tronchetti (eds) Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015), 37–43.

  273. 273.

    Howard Anawalt, ‘Direct television Broadcasting and the Quest for Communication Equality’ (1984) 5 Michigan Journal of International Law 361, 363.

  274. 274.

    Howard Anawalt, ‘Direct television Broadcasting and the Quest for Communication Equality’ (1984) 5 Michigan Journal of International Law 361, 363–365.

  275. 275.

    Howard Anawalt, ‘Direct television Broadcasting and the Quest for Communication Equality’ (1984) 5 Michigan Journal of International Law 361, 363.

  276. 276.

    UNGA Res 2916 (XXVII) (9 November 1972) UN Doc A/RES/2916(XXVII).

  277. 277.

    UNGA Res 2916 (XXVII) (9 November 1972) UN Doc A/RES/2916(XXVII), preamble.

  278. 278.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of Its Thirteenth Session (6 May–31 May 1974)’ (6 June 1975) UN Doc A/AC.105/133, 12.

  279. 279.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of Its Thirteenth Session (6 May–31 May 1974)’ (6 June 1975) UN Doc A/AC.105/133, 13.

  280. 280.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the Two Hundred and Eighth to Two Hundred and Twenty-Fifth Meetings’ (4 October 1974) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.208–225, 53.

  281. 281.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Records of the Two Hundred and Eighth to Two Hundred and Twenty-Fifth Meetings’ (4 October 1974) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.208–225, 54–57.

  282. 282.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Fifteenth Session (3–28 May 1976)’ (28 May 1976) UN Doc A/AC.105/171 Annex II | UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Sixteenth Session (14 March–8 April 1977)’ (11 April 1977) UN Doc A/AC.105/196 Annex II | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 33rd Session Supp No. 20 UN Doc A/33/20 (7 August 1978), 10–11.

  283. 283.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 269th Meeting’ (22 March 1977) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.269, 2–3.

  284. 284.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 269th Meeting’ (22 March 1977) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.269, 5.

  285. 285.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 288th Meeting’ (20 March 1978) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.288, 9.

  286. 286.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 269th Meeting’ (22 March 1977) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.269, 5–9 | UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 288th Meeting’ (20 March 1978) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.288, 10.

  287. 287.

    UNCOPUOS (Legal Subcommittee), ‘Summary Record of the 290th Meeting’ (25 March 1978) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.290, 7.

  288. 288.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 14th Meeting’ (27 October 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.14, 6.

  289. 289.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (36th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 17th Meeting’ (29 October 1981) UN Doc A/SPC/36/SR.17, 7–8.

  290. 290.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 15th Meeting’ (31 October 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.15, 7.

  291. 291.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 15th Meeting’ (31 October 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.15, 9.

  292. 292.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 6.

  293. 293.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 16.

  294. 294.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 17th Meeting’ (7 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.17, 4.

  295. 295.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 14th Meeting’ (27 October 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.14, 8.

  296. 296.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 2.

  297. 297.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 2.

  298. 298.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 4.

  299. 299.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 11.

  300. 300.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 11.

  301. 301.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (36th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (9 November 1981) UN Doc A/SPC/36/SR.16, 7.

  302. 302.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (36th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 17th Meeting’ (6 November 1981) UN Doc A/SPC/36/SR.17, 2 & 6 | UNGA Special Political Committee (36th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (9 November 1981) UN Doc A/SPC/36/SR.16, 11.

  303. 303.

    UNGA ‘Request for the inclusion of a supplementary item in the Agenda of the Thirty-Sixth Session: Conclusion of a Treaty on the Prohibition of the Stationing of Weapons of Any Kind in Outer Space’ UN GAOR 36th Session UN Doc A/36/192 (20 August 1981).

  304. 304.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (36th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 17th Meeting’ (6 November 1981) UN Doc A/SPC/36/SR.17, 12.

  305. 305.

    UNGA Res 37/92 ‘Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting’ (10 December 1982) UN Doc A/RES/37/92.

  306. 306.

    UNGA Res 2600 (XXIV) (16 December 1969) UN Doc A/RES/2600 (XXIV).

  307. 307.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 29th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/9620 (1974), 5.

  308. 308.

    UNGA Res 3182 (XXVIII) (18 December 1973) UN Doc A/RES/3182 (XXVIII).

  309. 309.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the work of its Fifteenth Session (3–28 May 1976)’ (28 May 1976) UN Doc A/AC.105/171 Annex III, 2–3.

  310. 310.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 15th Meeting’ (31 October 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.15, 7 | UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 15th Meeting’ (31 October 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.15, 9 | UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 6 | UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (3 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.16, 16 | UNGA Special Political Committee (35th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 17th Meeting’ (7 November 1980) UN Doc A/SPC/35/SR.17, 4.

  311. 311.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the work of its Fifteenth Session (3–28 May 1976)’ (28 May 1976) UN Doc A/AC.105/171 Annex III, 4.

  312. 312.

    UNCOPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Sub-committee on the Work of its Sixteenth Session (14 March–8 April 1977)’ (11 April 1977) UN Doc A/AC.105/196 Annex III, 4–6.

  313. 313.

    UNGA Res 47/68 ‘Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space’ (14 December 1992) UN Doc A/RES/47/68.

  314. 314.

    UNGA Res 51/122 ‘Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries’ (13 December 1996) UN Doc A/RES/51/122.

  315. 315.

    UNGA Res 59/115 ‘Application of the concept of the “Launching State”’ (10 December 2004) UN Doc A/RES/59/115.

  316. 316.

    UNGA Res 62/101 ‘Recommendations on Enhancing the Practice of States and International Intergovernmental Organizations in Registering Space Objects’ (17 December 2007) UN Doc A/RES/62/101.

  317. 317.

    UNGA Res 68/76 ‘Recommendations on National Legislation Relevant to the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space’ (11 December 2013) UN Doc A/RES/68/74.

  318. 318.

    UNGA Res 62/217 ‘International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ (22 December 2007) UN Doc A/RES/62/217 | The guidelines are stipulated in: UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 62nd Session Supp No. 20 UN Doc A/62/20 Annex (2007).

  319. 319.

    UNGA Res 37/89 (10 December 1982) UN Doc A/RES/37/89.

  320. 320.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 18th Meeting’ (14 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.18, 6.

  321. 321.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (8 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.19, 3.

  322. 322.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (8 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.19, 10–11.

  323. 323.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 21st Meeting’ (11 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.21, 8.

  324. 324.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 21st Meeting’ (11 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.21, 18.

  325. 325.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 21st Meeting’ (11 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.21, 18.

  326. 326.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 21st Meeting’ (11 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.21, 19.

  327. 327.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (8 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.19, 5 | Italy made a very similar statement in UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (8 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.19, 14.

  328. 328.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (38th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (8 November 1983) UN Doc A/SPC/38/SR.19, 4.

  329. 329.

    UNGA Res 38/80 (15 December 1983) UN Doc A/RES/38/80, par. 15.

  330. 330.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 39th Meeting’ (28 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.39, 4.

  331. 331.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 39th Meeting’ (28 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.39, 4.

  332. 332.

    Exemplified by Sweden: ‘The militarization of outer space must be considered in the general context of disarmament. His country firmly supported General Assembly resolution 38/70, which reiterated that the Conference on Disarmament, as the single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum, had a primary role in the negotiation of an agreement on the prevention of an arms race in outer space.’ in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 42nd Meeting’ (30 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.42, 10 | U.S. in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 42nd Meeting’ (30 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.42, 9.

  333. 333.

    Exemplified by a statement made by Vietnam: ‘Viet Nam shared the view that COPUOS was competent to consider questions relating to the militarization of outer space and felt that it should be given a more specific mandate in that regard. The prevention of the militarisation of outer space and the peaceful uses of outer space were closely connected.’ in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 40th Meeting’ (29 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.40, 4 | Czechoslovakia in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 41st Meeting’ (29 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.41, 8 | Poland in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 42nd Meeting’ (30 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.42, 3 | USSR in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 42nd Meeting’ (30 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.42, 13.

  334. 334.

    Exemplified by the earlier statement by Brazil, but also by Austria: ‘Although COPUOS was not a suitable forum for arms control negotiations, it could eventually make a practical contribution to the prevention of an arms race in outer space by supporting negotiations carried out in other forums.’ in UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 41st Meeting’ (29 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.41, 4.

  335. 335.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (39th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 42nd Meeting’ (30 November 1984) UN Doc A/SPC/39/SR.42, 13.

  336. 336.

    UNGA Res 39/96 (14 December 1984) UN Doc A/RES/39/96 | UNGA Res 40/162 (16 December 1985) UN Doc A/RES/40/162 | UNGA Res 41/64 (3 December 1986) UN Doc A/RES/41/64 | UNGA Res 42/68 (2 December 1987) UN Doc A/RES/42/68 | UNGA Res 43/56 (6 December 1988) UN Doc A/RES/43/56 | UNGA Res 44/46 (8 December 1989) UN Doc A/RES/44/46.

  337. 337.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (40th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 38th Meeting’ (22 November 1985) UN Doc A/SPC/40/SR.38, 3.

  338. 338.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (40th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 40th Meeting’ (25 November 1985) UN Doc A/SPC/40/SR.40, 4.

  339. 339.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (40th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 37th Meeting’ (22 November 1985) UN Doc A/SPC/40/SR.37, 5 | Also supported by Australia: ‘It was Australia’s belief that the military use of satellites did not necessarily run counter to the goal of preserving outer space for peaceful purposes’ in UNGA Special Political Committee (40th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 40th Meeting’ (25 November 1985) UN Doc A/SPC/40/SR.40, 2.

  340. 340.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (44th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (27 November 1989) UN Doc A/SPC/44/SR.19, 9.

  341. 341.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (44th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (27 November 1989) UN Doc A/SPC/44/SR.19, 9.

  342. 342.

    UNGA Special Political Committee (44th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 21st Meeting’ (1 December 1989) UN Doc A/SPC/44/SR.21, 2.

  343. 343.

    UNGA Res 44/112 (15 December 1989) UN Doc A/RES/44/112.

  344. 344.

    UNGA Res 45/72 (11 December 1990) UN Doc A/RES/45/72 | UNGA Res 46/65 (9 December 1991) UN Doc A/RES/46/65 | UNGA Res 47/68 (14 December 1992) UN Doc A/RES/47/68 | UNGA Res 48/39 (10 December 1993) UN Doc A/RES/48/39 | UNGA Res 49/34 (9 December 1994) UN Doc A/RES/49/34 | UNGA Res 50/27 (6 December 1995) UN Doc A/RES/50/27 | UNGA Res 51/123 (13 December 1996) UN Doc A/RES/51/123 | UNGA Res 52/56 (10 December 1997) UN Doc A/RES/52/56 | UNGA Res 53/45 (3 December 1998) UN Doc A/RES/53/45 | UNGA Res 54/67 (6 December 1999) UN Doc A/RES/54/67.

  345. 345.

    UNGA Fourth Committee (49th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 20th Meeting’ (2 December 1994) UN Doc A/C.4/49/SR.20, 2.

  346. 346.

    UNGA Fourth Committee (54th Session) ‘Summary Records of the 15th Meeting’ (17 December 1999) UN Doc A/C.4/54/SR.15, 4 | A similar statement was made the year prior in UNGA Fourth Committee (53rd Session) ‘Summary Records of the 11th Meeting’ (12 November 1998) UN Doc A/C.4/53/SR.11, 3.

  347. 347.

    UNGA Fourth Committee (55th Session) ‘Summary Records of the 12th Meeting’ (21 March 2001) UN Doc A/C.4/55/SR.12, 5.

  348. 348.

    UNGA Fourth Committee (55th Session) ‘Summary Records of the 12th Meeting’ (21 March 2001) UN Doc A/C.4/55/SR.12, 6.

  349. 349.

    UNGA Res 55/122 (8 December 2000) UN Doc A/RES/55/122 | UNGA Res 56/51 (10 December 2001) UN Doc A/RES/56/51 | UNGA Res 57/116 (11 December 2002) UN Doc A/RES/57/116 | UNGA Res 58/89 (9 December 2003) UN Doc A/RES/58/89 | UNGA Res 59/116 (10 December 2004) UN Doc A/RES/59/116 | UNGA Res 60/99 (8 December 2005) UN Doc A/RES/60/99 | UNGA Res 61/111 (14 December 2006) UN Doc A/RES/61/111 | UNGA Res 62/217 (22 December 2007) UN Doc A/RES/62/217 | UNGA Res 63/90 (5 December 2008) UN Doc A/RES/63/90 | UNGA Res 64/86 (10 December 2009) UN Doc A/RES/64/86.

  350. 350.

    UN Fourth Committee (59th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 8th Meeting’ (11 November 2004) UN Doc A/C.4/59/SR.8, 9.

  351. 351.

    UN Fourth Committee (64th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 13th Meeting’ (24 December 2009) UN Doc A/C.4/64/SR.13, 7.

  352. 352.

    UN Fourth Committee (59th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 11th Meeting’ (23 December 2004) UN Doc A/C.4/59/SR.11, 3.

  353. 353.

    UN Fourth Committee (59th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 7th Meeting’ (2 December 2004) UN Doc A/C.4/59/SR.7, 5.

  354. 354.

    UN Fourth Committee (64th Session) ‘Summary Record of the 14th Meeting’ (30 November 2009) UN Doc A/C.4/64/SR.14.

  355. 355.

    UNGA Res 66/71 (9 December 2011) UN Doc A/RES/66/71 | UNGA Res 67/113 (18 December 2012) UN Doc A/RES/67/113 | UNGA Res 68/75 (11 December 2013) UN Doc A/RES/68/75.

  356. 356.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), par. 45 and 49.

  357. 357.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), par. 43 | Paragraph 43 states that statements have been made to the effect that the right of self-defence under the UN Charter as applied to outer space should be examined, which is clearly a military use of outer space.

  358. 358.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), par. 46 and 47.

  359. 359.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), par. 48.

  360. 360.

    The COPUOS report does not name the specific state(s) that made a statement. Therefore, the positions cannot be allocated to specific states.

  361. 361.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), 49–51.

  362. 362.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), 6–7.

  363. 363.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/69/20 (1 July 2014), par. 372.

  364. 364.

    UNGA Res 69/85 (5 December 2014) UN Doc A/RES/69/85 | UNGA Res 70/82 (9 December 2015) UN Doc A/RES/70/82 | UNGA Res 71/90 (6 December 2016) UN Doc A/RES/71/90 | UNGA Res 72/77 (7 December 2017) UN Doc A/RES/72/77.

  365. 365.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 72nd Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/72/20 (27 June 2017), par. 42, 43, 44 & 45.

  366. 366.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 73rd Session Supp No 20 UN Doc A/73/20 (5 July 2018), par. 94–97.

  367. 367.

    UNGA Res 37/83 ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ (9 December 1982) UN Doc A/RES/37/83.

  368. 368.

    UNGA Res 37/99-D ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space and Prohibition of Anti-Satellite Systems’ (13 December 1982) UN Doc A/RES/37/99-D.

  369. 369.

    Exemplified by the drafts for the PTBT in the Eighteen-Nation Committee which initially contained provisions that would affect the use of rockets, not just those used for the delivery of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction.

  370. 370.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 38th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/38/27 (6 October 1983), 168–169.

  371. 371.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 38th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/38/27 (6 October 1983), 167–168.

  372. 372.

    UNGA Res 38/70 ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ (15 December 1983) UN Doc A/RES/38/70 | UNGA ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space: Report of the First Committee’ UN GOAR 38th Session UN Doc A/38/633 (10 December 1983).

  373. 373.

    UNGA ‘Conclusion of a Treaty on the Prohibition of the Use of Force in Outer Space and From Space Against the Earth: Report of the First Committee’ UN GOAR 38th Session UN Doc A/38/647 (9 December 1983).

  374. 374.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 39th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/39/27 (2 October 1984), 161.

  375. 375.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 39th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/39/27 (2 October 1984), 163.

  376. 376.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 39th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/39/27 (2 October 1984), 162.

  377. 377.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 39th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/39/27 (2 October 1984), 162.

  378. 378.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 39th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/39/27 (2 October 1984), 163.

  379. 379.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 40th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/40/27 (3 October 1985), 114.

  380. 380.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 40th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/40/27 (3 October 1985), 116.

  381. 381.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 40th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/40/27 (3 October 1985), 117–118.

  382. 382.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 40th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/40/27 (3 October 1985), 120.

  383. 383.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 41st Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/41/27 (22 September 1986), 100 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 42nd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/42/27 (14 September 1987), 161 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 44th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/44/27 (22 September 1989), 266.

  384. 384.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 41st Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/41/27 (22 September 1986), 100–102 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 42nd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/42/27 (14 September 1987), 161–163.

  385. 385.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 41st Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/41/27 (22 September 1986), 106 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 42nd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/42/27 (14 September 1987), 167.

  386. 386.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 43rd Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/43/27 (3 October 1988), 216 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 44th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/44/27 (22 September 1989), 264.

  387. 387.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 45th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/45/27 (21 September 1990), 304 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 46th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/46/27 (30 September 1991), 274 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 47th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/47/27 (23 September 1992), 66.

  388. 388.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 45th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/45/27 (21 September 1990), 306–307 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 46th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/46/27 (30 September 1991), 277.

  389. 389.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 45th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/45/27 (21 September 1990), 306.

  390. 390.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 46th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/46/27 (30 September 1991), 276.

  391. 391.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 46th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/46/27 (30 September 1991), 277.

  392. 392.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 46th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/46/27 (30 September 1991), 277.

  393. 393.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 49th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/49/27 (26 September 1994), 125.

  394. 394.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 49th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/49/27 (26 September 1994), 127.

  395. 395.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 49th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/49/27 (26 September 1994), 128.

  396. 396.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 49th Sessions Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/49/27 (26 September 1994), 128.

  397. 397.

    See, amongst others: UNGA Res 41/53 ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ UN Doc A/RES/41/53 (3 December 1986) | UNGA Res 42/33 ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ UN Doc A/RES/42/33 (30 November 1987).

  398. 398.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 50th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/50/27 (22 September 1995), 133.

  399. 399.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 50th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/50/27 (22 September 1995), 133.

  400. 400.

    Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (adopted 10 September 1996 UNGA Res 50/245, opened for signature 24 September 1996).

  401. 401.

    Wade Boese, ‘CD Deadlock Continues as U.S. and China Square Off’ (2000) 30 Arms Control Today 26 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 51st Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/51/27 (12 September 1996), 48–49 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 52nd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/52/27 (9 September 1997), 12 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 53rd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/53/27 (8 September 1998), 17 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 54th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/54/27 (30 September 1999), 9 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 55th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/55/27 (21 September 2000), 7 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 56th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/56/27 (13 September 2001), 6 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 57th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/57/27 (12 September 2002), 7–8 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 58th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/58/27 (9 September 2003), 6 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 59th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/59/27 (7 September 2004), 7 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 60th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/60/27 (22 September 2005), 6–7 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 61st Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/61/27 (15 September 2006), 6 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 62nd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/62/27 (13 September 2007), 10–11 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 63rd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/63/27 (9 September 2008), 9–10 | UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 64th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/64/27 (17 September 2009), 13–14.

  402. 402.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 63rd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/63/27 (9 September 2008), 9.

  403. 403.

    CD ‘Letter dated 12 February 2008 from the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation and the Permanent Representative of China to the Conference on Disarmament Addressed to the Secretary-General of the Conference Transmitting the Russian and Chinese Texts of the Draft “Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT)” Introduced by the Russian Federation and China’ UN Doc CD/1839 (29 February 2008).

  404. 404.

    Council of the European Union, ‘Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities’ 17175/08—Annex II (17 December 2008).

  405. 405.

    Cole Harvey, ‘CD Breaks Deadlock on Work Plan’ (2009) 39 Arms Control Today 42 | CD, ‘Draft Decision on the Implementation of CD/1864 for the 2009 Session of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN Doc CD/1870/Rev.2 (2 August 2009).

  406. 406.

    UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 64th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/64/27 (13 October 2009).

  407. 407.

    UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 65th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/65/27 (14 September 2010), 10 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 66th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/66/27 (7 October 2011), 11 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 67th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/67/27 (5 October 2012), 10 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 68th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/68/27 (20 September 2013), 10 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/69/27 (30 September 2014), 18 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 70th Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/70/27 (18 September 2015), 20 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 71st Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/71/27 (22 September 2016), 13 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 72nd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/72/27 (22 September 2017), 17 | UNGA, ‘Report of the Conference on Disarmament’ UN GOAR 73rd Session Supp No. 27 UN Doc A/73/27 (14 September 2018), 10.

  408. 408.

    Ibid.

  409. 409.

    CD, ‘Final Record of the One Thousand One Hundred and Sixty-Fifth Plenary Meeting’ UN Doc CD/PV.1165 (2 February 2010), 6.

  410. 410.

    CD, ‘Final Record of the One Thousand One Hundred and Eighty-Eights Plenary Meeting’ UN Doc CD/PV.1188 (6 July 2010), 7.

  411. 411.

    CD, ‘Final Record of the One Thousand Two Hundred and Third Plenary Meeting’ UN Doc CD/PV.1203 (8 February 2011), 3.

  412. 412.

    CD, ‘Final Record of the One Thousand Two Hundred and Third Plenary Meeting’ UN Doc CD/PV.1203 (8 February 2011), 9.

  413. 413.

    CD, ‘Decision’ UN Doc CD/2119 (19 February 2018).

  414. 414.

    UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Eight Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.58, 4 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Eight Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.58, 6 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Eight Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.58, 8 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Fifty-Ninth Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.59, 2–3 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 4 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Sixtieth Meeting’ (20 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.60, 2–3 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 7 | UNGA COPUOS Legal Sub-Committee ‘Summary Record of the Sixty-Second Meeting’ (24 October 1966) UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, 8.

  415. 415.

    UNGA First Committee (21st Session) 1492nd Meeting, 428.

  416. 416.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No. 20 (1 July 2014) UN Doc A/69/20, par. 45 and 49.

  417. 417.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No. 20 (1 July 2014) UN Doc A/69/20, par. 43 | Paragraph 43 states that statements have been made to the effect that the right of self-defence under the UN Charter as applied to outer space should be examined, which is clearly a military use of outer space.

  418. 418.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No. 20 (1 July 2014) UN Doc A/69/20, par. 46 and 47.

  419. 419.

    UNGA ‘Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN GOAR 69th Session Supp No. 20 (1 July 2014) UN Doc A/69/20, par. 48.

  420. 420.

    UN COPUOS, ‘Report of the Legal Subcommittee on its Fifty-Seventh Session, Held in Vienna from 9 to 20 April 2018’ UN Doc A/AC.105/1177 (30 April 2018), 3.

  421. 421.

    Council of the European Union, ‘Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities’ 17175/08—Annex II (17 December 2008) | CD, ‘Canada: Working Paper: On the Merits of Certain Draft Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures and Treaty Proposals for Space Security’ UN Doc CD/1865 (5 June 2009), 2.

  422. 422.

    CD, ‘Canada: Working Paper: On the Merits of Certain Draft Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures and Treaty Proposals for Space Security’ UN Doc CD/1865 (5 June 2009), 4.

  423. 423.

    UN COPUOS, ‘Report of the Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities (UN-Space) on its Thirty-Seventh Session’ UN Doc A/AC.105/1143 (3 April 2018), 1.

  424. 424.

    UNOOSA, ‘Participating Organizations’ <http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/un-space/po.html> Accessed 19 December 2018.

  425. 425.

    UN COPUOS, ‘Space Weather: Special Report of the Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities on Developments Within the United Nations System Related to Space Weather’ UN Doc A/AC.105/1146 (28 April 2017) | UN COPUOS, ‘Space and Climate Change: Special Report of the Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities on the Use of Space Technology Within the United Nations System to Address Climate Change Issues’ UN Doc A/AC.105/991 (31 March 2011) | UN COPUOS, ‘Space for Agriculture Development and Food Security: Special Report of the Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities on the Use of Space Technology within the United Nations System for Agriculture Development and Food Security’ UN Doc A/AC.105/1042 (8 April 2013).

  426. 426.

    UNGA Res 71/90, ‘International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ UN Doc A/RES/71/90 (6 December 2016).

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  1. European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria

    Annette Froehlich & Vincent Seffinga

  2. International Institute of Air and Space Law, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands

    Ruiyan Qiu

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    Annette Froehlich

  2. European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria

    Vincent Seffinga

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Froehlich, A., Seffinga, V., Qiu, R. (2020). The Development of the Mandates of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and the Conference on Disarmament (CD) and the Collaboration Between the Forums. In: Froehlich, A., Seffinga, V. (eds) The United Nations and Space Security. Studies in Space Policy, vol 21. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06025-1_3

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