Abstract
Rosoff and Spencer’s analysis of girls’ school and college stories through a transnational lens investigates how informal education for citizenship through fiction is provided to young readers in both Britain and the United States. Plots that include organisations such as the Girl Guides and the Girls’ Guildry and the American sorority and honour systems offer the opportunity for an innovative analysis of the interaction between the national and the supranational aspect of female citizenship between 1910 and 1960. The theoretical framework enables Rosoff and Spencer to interrogate examples of fictional accounts of leadership in school and philanthropic acts by the heroines in the wider community.
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Notes
- 1.
Kathleen Canning and Sonya A. Rose, Gender, Citizenships and Subjectivities (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), 2.
- 2.
Carol Pateman, The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism, and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity, 1989); Ruth Lister, The Female Citizen (Liverpool: Liverpool University, 1989); Jane Lewis, Women in England 1870–1950: Sexual Divisions and Social Change (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1984) and Women in Britain since 1945: women, family, work and the state in the post war years (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992); Elizabeth Wilson, Only Halfway to Paradise. Women in Post-War Britain, 1945–1968 (London: Tavistock, 1980).
- 3.
See Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Return to Overton Campus (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1915), 141–146. A lengthy section (chapters 21–23) in the first Marjorie Dean postgraduate novel focuses on campus elections for class officers; see Pauline Lester, Marjorie Dean, Post-Graduate (New York: A. L. Burt, 1925).
- 4.
Dorita Fairlie Bruce, Dimsie Head Girl (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925); reprinted in The New Dimsie Omnibus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), 72. Citations refer to the New Dimsie Omnibus edition.
- 5.
By 1960, only 75 women had been elected to the House of Commons including Margaret Thatcher, elected at the end of the period under discussion here in 1959.
- 6.
These were made up on 4 Labour, 4 Conservative, and 2 Liberal representatives.
- 7.
Eileen Yeo, The Contest for Social Science: Relations and Representations of Class and Gender (London: Rivers Oram, 1996).
- 8.
See Jeffrey Scheuer, “Origins of the Settlement House Movement,” Social Welfare History Project, accessed 26 August 2018, https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/settlement-houses/origins-of-the-settlement-house-movement/ and Georgina Brewis, “From Working Parties to Social Work: Middle-Class Girls’ Education and Social Service 1890–1914,” History of Education 38, no. 6 (November 2009): 761–777.
- 9.
Sheila Jeffreys, The Spinster and Her Enemies: Feminism and Sexuality, 1880–1930 (London: Pandora, 1985).
- 10.
The UK Welfare State Acts are usually acknowledged as: Family Allowances Act (1945), Butler Education Act (1944), National Health Service Act (1946), National Insurance Act (1946), and Town Planning Act (1947). ‘Welfare State’ was originally coined by Alfred Zimmern to contrast with the idea of Hitler’s warfare state: ‘essentially it means the totality of schemes and services through which central Government together with local authorities assumed a major responsibility for dealing with all the different types of social problems which beset individual citizens’; Arthur Marwick, British Society Since 1945 (London: Penguin, 1990), 45.
- 11.
Women’s unpaid contribution to welfare through their domestic care for the elderly and their families has been part of feminist critiques of welfare state rhetoric. See David Gladstone, The Twentieth Century Welfare State (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999).
- 12.
Richard M. Titmuss, Essays on the Welfare State (London: George Allen, 1958).
- 13.
A. E. Morgan, Young Citizen (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1943), 7. Morgan was commissioned to by the King George’s Jubilee Trust to survey adolescent citizens of the British Isles in 1938. The full findings were published in The Needs of Youth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939). Young Citizen, was published as a ‘Penguin Special’ aimed at a public audience offering a concise overview of his findings.
- 14.
Ibid., 8.
- 15.
Ibid., 11.
- 16.
Eva Lofgren, Schoolmates of the Long-Ago (Stockholm: Symposium Graduale), 95.
- 17.
Mark Abrams, The Teenage Consumer (London: London Press Exchange, 1959).
- 18.
Jon Savage, Teenage: The Creation of Youth Culture (London: Chatto and Windus, 2007), 441–454. See also, for example, Grace Paladino, Teenagers: An American History (New York: Basic Books, 1996).
- 19.
Katharine Bentley-Beauman, Sybil Campbell 1889–1977 (London: Sybil Campbell Library Committee, 1987), 2.
- 20.
Marie Sandell “‘Truly International’?: The International Federation of University Women’s Quest for expansion in the Interwar period,” History of Education Researcher 82 (2008): 74.
- 21.
Joyce Goodman, “International Citizenship and the International Federation of University Women before 1929,” History of Education 40: 6 (2011) 701–721.
- 22.
The Annual Reports of the British and International Federations of University Women are held in the Sybil Campbell Collection, University of Winchester.
- 23.
The Association of Collegiate Alumnae formed in 1882 and became the American Association of University Women in 1921. See “Our History,” accessed 26 August 2018, https://history.aauw.org/
- 24.
Caitriona Beaumont, Housewives and Citizens: Domesticity and the Women’s Movement in England, 1928–1964 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015).
- 25.
Mary Beth Norton, Founding Mothers & Fathers: Gendered Power and the Forming of American Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
- 26.
Mary Beth Norton, Liberty’s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750–1800 (Boston: Little Brown, 1980), 156.
- 27.
“Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March–5 April 1776,” Adams Family Papers: A Electronic Archive, Massachusetts Historical Society, accessed 14 May 2018, http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760331aa&bc=%2Fdigitaladams%2Farchive%2Fbrowse%2Fletters_1774_1777.php. Note that original spelling is preserved.
- 28.
Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), 7.
- 29.
Wood, Radicalism, 8.
- 30.
Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 12.
- 31.
Ibid., 269.
- 32.
Mary Kelley, Learning to Stand and Speak: Women, Education, and Public Life in America’s Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 5. Kelley refers to Harriet Beecher Stowe, a member of an illustrious intellectual family and best known as the author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
- 33.
Catharine Beecher, A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School (Boston: Thomas H. Webb, & Co., 1841).
- 34.
Ibid., 56.
- 35.
“Report of the Woman’s Rights Convention,” Learn about the Park: Women’s Rights National Historical Park, accessed 14 May 2018, https://www.nps.gov/wori/learn/historyculture/report-of-the-womans-rights-convention.htm
- 36.
Many historians have traced multiple aspects of the drive for women’s suffrage in the United States; those listed here are representative. See, for example, Aileen S. Kraditor, The ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890–1920 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965); Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle: The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); Jean H. Baker, Sisters: The Lives of America’s Suffragists (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006): Ellen Carol DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women’s Movement in America, 1848–1869 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999); and Katherine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, Alice Paul and the American Suffrage Campaign (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007).
- 37.
See Louise W Knight, Citizen: Jane Addams and the Struggle for Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 340–344.
- 38.
See, for example, Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement 1890–1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967) and American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.), especially chapter 12.
- 39.
Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: American Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920,” American Historical Review 89 (June 1984), 644 and 645.
- 40.
Ibid. Similar themes are echoed in Decades of Discontent: The Women’s Movement, 1920–1940, Lois Scharf and Joan M. Jensen, eds., (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983).
- 41.
Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 114.
- 42.
Dorita Fairlie Bruce, Dimsie Goes to School, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925); reprinted in The Dimsie Omnibus (London: Oxford University Press, 1932), 104. Citations refer to the Omnibus edition.
- 43.
Grizel says to Gisela ‘I know Miss Bettany means to have this exactly like an English school.’ Elinor Brent-Dyer, The School at the Chalet (London: W & R. Chambers, 1925), 60.
- 44.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, The School at the Chalet, 142.
- 45.
Ibid., 158–161.
- 46.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, The Head-Girl of the Chalet School, (1928; repr. London: W. & R. Chambers, 1953), 79–80. Citations are to the 1953 edition.
- 47.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, The Rivals of the Chalet School, reprint (1929; repr. London: W. & R. Chambers, 1939), 39. Citations are to the 1939 edition.
- 48.
Dorita Fairlie Bruce, Dimsie Goes to School, 69.
- 49.
Pauline Lester, Marjorie Dean, High School Sophomore (New York: A.L. Burt, 1917b), 149.
- 50.
Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Junior Year at High School (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1911).
- 51.
Ibid., 27. Mrs Gray plays a significant role in the series, providing wisdom and friendship for the younger set, outside of their family groups. She is also the aunt of Grace’s eventual husband, Tom, and uses her wealth to support Grace in her philanthropic work.
- 52.
Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Senior Year at High School (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1911), 221.
- 53.
Tammy M. Proctor, “(Uni) Forming Youth: Girl Guides and Boy Scouts in Britain 1908–1939,” History Workshop Journal, 45 (Spring 1998): 103–132. See also Tammy M Proctor, On My Honour: Guides and Scouts in Interwar Britain (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2002).
- 54.
Kristine Alexander, Guiding Modern Girls: Girlhood, Empire and Internationalism in the 1920s and 1930s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2017), 202. See also Kristine Alexander, “The Girl Guide Movement and Imperial Internationalism during the 1920s and 1930s,” Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 2, no. 1 (Winter 2009), 37–63.
- 55.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, Jo of the Chalet School (1926; repr. London: W. & R. Chambers, 1949), 261. Citations are to the 1949 edition.
- 56.
Ibid., 261–2.
- 57.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, The Rivals of the Chalet School, 134.
- 58.
Ibid., 265.
- 59.
Ibid., 271.
- 60.
Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Junior Year at High School, 11.
- 61.
Ibid., 12.
- 62.
Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Senior Year at High School, 250.
- 63.
Alice Ross Colver, Joan Foster, Freshman, The Story of a Girl of Today (1942; repr. New York: Dodd Mead & Co, 1955), 108. Citations are to the 1955 edition.
- 64.
Alice Ross Colver, Joan Foster, Sophomore (1948; repr. New York: Dodd Mead & Co, 1953), 31. Citations are to the 1953 edition.
- 65.
Ibid., 37.
- 66.
Alice Ross Colver, Joan Foster, Freshman, The Story of a Girl of Today, 6.
- 67.
Alice Ross Colver, Joan Foster, Sophomore, 1, Citations are to the 1953 edition.
- 68.
Ibid., 40.
- 69.
Ibid., 40.
- 70.
Ibid.
- 71.
Grace’s relationship with her principal Miss Thompson deteriorates temporarily when she refuses to give away the person who looked at the exam questions on her desk. Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Junior Year at High School, chapter 20.
- 72.
Alice Ross Colver, Joan Foster, Sophomore, 41.
- 73.
Ibid., 80.
- 74.
Alice Ross Colver, Joan Foster Junior (1949; repr. New York: Dodd Mead & Co, 1956), 208. Citations are to the 1956 edition.
- 75.
Pauline Lester, Marjorie Dean, High School Junior (New York: A. L. Burt, 1917a), 37.
- 76.
Ibid., 39.
- 77.
Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Junior Year at High School, 42.
- 78.
Ibid., 57.
- 79.
$500 would be worth over $12,000 in 2018, accessed 17 January 2018, https://www.dollartimes.com/inflation/inflation.php?amount=500&year=1914
- 80.
Jessie Graham Flower, Grace Harlowe’s Second Year at Overton College (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1914), 190.
- 81.
Ibid., 196.
- 82.
Pauline Lester, Marjorie Dean Macy’s Hamilton Colony (New York: A. L. Burt, 1930), 6–7.
- 83.
Dorita Fairlie Bruce, Dimsie Intervenes (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 10.
- 84.
Ibid., 11.
- 85.
Ibid., 45.
- 86.
Ibid., 51.
- 87.
Ibid., 52.
- 88.
Ibid., 60.
- 89.
Ibid., 161.
- 90.
Fairlie Bruce may have developed this story line from an experience of her niece a boarding school. Personal email correspondence with Dr Vivien Northcote, 21 July 2018.
- 91.
Dorita Fairlie Bruce, Dimsie Head Girl, 189.
- 92.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, The Chalet School in Exile (London & Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers, 1940), 57.
- 93.
Ibid., 202.
- 94.
Ibid., 332. Emphases are in the original.
- 95.
Ibid., 333.
- 96.
John Newsom, The Education of Girls (London: Faber and Faber, 1948), 154.
- 97.
Kristine Alexander, Guiding Modern Girls, 79.
- 98.
Isabel Hofmeyr, in C.A. Bayly, Sven Beckert, Matthew Connelly, Isabel Hofmeyr, Wendy Kozol, and Patricia Seed, “AHR Conversation: On Transnational History.” American Historical Review 111, no. 5 (December 2006): 1444.
- 99.
Elinor Brent-Dyer, The Chalet School Goes to It (London: W. & R. Chambers, 1941; Radstock: Girls Gone By, 2009), 119–120. Citations refer to the Girls Gone By edition.
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Rosoff, N.G., Spencer, S. (2019). Responsibility. In: British and American School Stories, 1910–1960. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05986-6_4
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