Period 3: London—New Riches, New Squalor (1781–1870)

Hiller, Geoffrey G.; Groves, Peter L.; Dilnot, Alan F.

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05609-4_3

Geoffrey G. Hiller⁴,
Peter L. Groves⁵ &
Alan F. Dilnot⁶

66k Accesses

Abstract

This introduction considers the alarming growth in extent and population of London in the Industrial Revolution and its social consequences, an increase not just in size but in diversity, thanks to the arrival of immigrants drawn by Britain’s religious toleration, its political liberties and its economic opportunities. Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe, for example, were beginning late in the eighteenth century to supplement those who had come earlier from Western Europe. Among the crowds Wordsworth observes on the streets of London in the 1790s are not just “The Frenchman and the Spaniard,” or even “The Swede, the Russian”, but also American Indians, “Moors, / Malays, Lascars, the Tartar and Chinese, / And Negro Ladies in white muslin gowns” (The Prelude 1805, 7.235–43). The introduction looks at the railways, and their enablement of suburbanisation, and at the beginnings of social and political reform, including the expanding base of education and the consequent creation of a broad reading public.

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Notes

1.
Figures from http://www.demographia.com/dm.lon31.htm, accessed 1 May 2018.
2.
London County was created in 1889 and encompassed 28 local boroughs.
3.
Oliver Twist was serialised in Bentley’s Miscellany, 1837–1839.
4.
Belgravian: denizen of Belgravia, an affluent district of London.
5.
Some at Tellson’s Bank near TempleBar in A Tale of Two Cities, Bk 2, ch. 1.
6.
In Somers Town in the 1820s; mentioned in Bleak House, ch. 43.
7.
By walking, cabriolets or horse-drawn buses, introduced in 1829.
8.
By the end of Victoria’s reign there were more than 50,000 horses transporting goods and people around London, producing something in the order of 500 tons of faeces each day, and over 12,000 gallons of urine, most of it deposited in the streets. If you wished to cross the street undefiled, therefore, you needed to employ the essential, but undervalued, services of a crossing-sweeper. See https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Great-Horse-Manure-Crisis-of-1894/, accessed 24 May 2018.
9.
For London fog, see General Introduction, n.21.
10.
THE DOME: the dome of St Paul’s Cathedral; see General Introduction, n.4.
11.
as fast … gourd: When Jonah was outside Nineveh, God made a gourd (a shrub) grow quickly to shelter him from the sun. But Lucy’s hopes are to be dashed: “God prepared a worm when the morning rose next day, and it smote the gourd, that it withered” (Jonah 4:5–7).
12.
Paternoster Row was a pedestrian precinct famous for its booksellers.
13.
Mrs Barrett: Lucy’s nurse as a child and now an old friend.
14.
TempleGardens: the gardens of the Inner and Middle Temples (see [3.28, n.93]).
15.
the West End: the fashionable district, including Mayfair, Belgravia, Soho and the City of Westminster.
16.
cork-cutters: those who cut cork into stoppers for bottles.
17.
housemaid … mop: something of a motif in this genre of urban georgic: compare Swift’s Moll who “whirl[s] her mop with dext’rous airs” [2.20] and Gay’s “careless quean” who flicks water from her mop on passers-by [2.18].
18.
bandbox: light box for carrying millinery.
19.
limy snare: sticky material used to catch insects.
20.
the old-clothes-man … abyss: The old-clothes-man is a receiver of stolen goods from the burglar (base/Domestic spoiler); he puts the pilfered treasure in his green abyss (an ironical term for the green briefcase used by barristers and lawyers).
21.
For London fog, see General Introduction, n.21.
22.
aits: small islands in a river.
23.
cabooses: small galleys (kitchens) in merchant ships (a brig has two masts).
24.
gunwale: low wooden fence round the edge of the deck.
25.
TempleBar: a western gate into the city in the Strand, near the Inns of Court, demolished in 1870 to improve traffic flow. It used to display the heads of traitors.
26.
Court of Chancery: sitting in Lincoln’s Inn Hall, the Court of Chancery (presided over by the Lord Chancellor) dealt with (among other matters not regulated by common law) trusts and the administration of estates. It was notoriously slow and convoluted in its deliberations.
27.
wens: fatty tumours of the head.
28.
Funding System: Cobbett argues that the Poor Laws, while assisting the poor, only increase their number.
29.
‘penitentiary’: The building of the National Penitentiary in Millbank, Pimlico, was completed in 1821, the year in which Cobbett was writing his diatribe. The prison was London’s largest.
30.
second sight: “a supposed power by which occurrences in the future or things at a distance are perceived as though they were actually present” (OED).
31.
like … thing: The poet’s feelings of guilt (perhaps at the possibly homoerotic nature of his intense love for Hallam) make him recall the ghost of Hamlet’s father, who “started like a guilty thing / Upon a fearful summons” when the day dawned (Hamlet 1.1.152–3).
32.
chartered: established by charter; privileged, made free.
33.
cry: (1) street-vendor’s cry; (2) cry of anguish.
34.
ban: (1) curse; (2) proclamation, prohibition.
35.
blackening: (1) with soot from ‘dark Satanic mills’; (2) morally degenerating.
36.
appals: (1) makes pale (with horror); (2) casts a pall over.
37.
Runs in blood down palace walls: The king of France, Louis XVI, was guillotined by the revolutionaries in 1793. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, the prophetess Cassandra foretells the king’s murder by crying that the palace smells of ‘dripping blood’.
38.
South Sea gods: Sculptures from Easter Island acquired by the British Museum.
39.
Blue-eyed Maid: Coach that plied between Dover and the Blue-eyed Maid Tavern in Southwark.
40.
Calendar: Story in The Arabian Nights, favourite reading for the young Dickens.
41.
Mohawk: or ‘mohock’, one of a gang of aristocratic hooligans who supposedly terrorized London by night in the C18th; derived from Mohawk, the indigenous North American tribe of warriors, a branch of the Iroquois. The treadmill was a form of forced labour used in prisons, introduced in 1818.
42.
Lord Ferrers: executed in 1760 for the murder of his steward.
43.
Lord Mayor’s show: an annual celebration in the City of London.
44.
Thistlewood: Arthur Thistlewood (1774–1820), one of the radical Cato Street Conspiracy, who had planned to murder the Cabinet; he was hanged until dead and then decapitated, in accordance with the Treason Act (1814).
45.
St Sepulchre’s: See [2.28], n.137.
46.
press-room: “The Press Room, a dark close chamber, … obtained its name from an immense wooden machine kept in it, with which such prisoners as refused to plead to their indictments were pressed to death” Ainsworth (1850: 193). The practice (the only form of torture ever sanctioned under English Common Law) was officially abandoned in 1772.
47.
Strand … TempleBar: the Strand ran west from Temple Bar to the City of Westminster.
48.
Waterloo Bridge: opened in 1817 and named to mark victory over Napoleon at Waterloo.
49.
A Sermon to Sinners … A New Spelling Book: amongst these only The NewgateCalendar is notable, for its regular reports of sensational crimes.
50.
The Prayse of Ignorance: Hood would publish an extract from this “Oration” in Whims and Oddities, First Series, 1826.
51.
‘Standard in Cornhill’: A lofty erection containing a vertical pipe with spouts and taps to supply water to the public (see OED 3.7).
52.
Cheapside: ‘market place’; from Old English ceapan, to buy. A broad street near St Paul’sin the City, it was the major market-place of London from the Middle Ages.
53.
Roses … England: the Wars of the Roses 1455–1485, between Yorkists (White Rose) and Lancastrians (Red Rose); ended at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 with the victory of Henry Tudor of Lancaster, who became Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York.
54.
Red Julius: Iolo Goch, whose real surname was Llwyd.
55.
Glendower: Owain Glyn Dŵr, c.1359–c.1415, Prince of Powys, who led unsuccessful resistance to English rule in Wales.
56.
East Englishman: Borrow was from Norfolk, a county of East Anglia.
57.
Lombards: Lombard Street was originally the place of settlement of goldsmiths from Lombardy in Northern Italy. The Royal Exchange, Banks and the Bank of England are situated there.
58.
bridge: Old London Bridge (see [1.2HN]).
59.
Caesar’s Castle … White Tower: The Tower of London, mistakenly thought to have been built by Julius Caesar, but in fact constructed by the Normans.
60.
Cleopatra’s Needle: an ancient Egyptian Obelisk in Alexandria. In 1877 it was transported thence to be re-erected on the ThamesEmbankment.
61.
Babel: Genesis 11:1–9 tells of the people of Earth who all spoke one language until they tried to build a tower to reach Heaven; God confounded their efforts by causing them to ‘babble’ in a multitude of mutually unintelligible languages. Then as now, London was a polyglot city.
62.
Maelstrom: a powerful whirlpool in the Arctic Ocean off the coast of Norway, and by extension any such whirlpool in a sea or river.
63.
St. James’s Street: runs from Piccadilly downhill to St. James’s Palace and Pall Mall; several exclusive men’s clubs are situated there.
64.
Sacharissa … Waller … Byron … Gibbon … Alvanley: Sacharissa is Lady Carlisle, praised in poems by Edmund Waller (1606–1687); Lord George Byron (1788–1824), poet; Edward Gibbon (1737–1794), historian; William Arden, 2nd Baron Alvanley (1789–1849), Regency buck or dandy.
65.
Rogers … White’s … Crock’s … Miss Gunning … Charlie Fox … Selwyn: Samuel Rogers (1763–1855), poet; White’s and Crock’s, men’s clubs; Miss Gunning, Elizabeth, Duchess of Hamilton, 1733–1790, née Gunning; Charles James Fox (1749–1806), Whig Statesman; Mrs. Selwyn, biting satirist in Fanny Burney’s Evelina (1778).
66.
Williams’ … Gillray’s … Whigs … Tories: Helen Maria Williams (1761?–1827), poet and friend of the Girondistes in the French Revolution; James Gillray (1757–1815) mordant caricaturist; Whigs and Tories, political parties originating in the seventeenth century.
67.
Pepys… Congreve … Nell Gwynne: Samuel Pepys (see [2.7HN]); William Congreve (1670–1729), playwright; Eleanor (Nell) Gwyn (1650–1687), actress and long-time mistress of Charles II.
68.
cutty-pipes: fashionably short (‘cut’) pipes.
69.
Brummel’s: George ‘Beau’ Brummell (1778–1840), Regency dandy, leader of fashion in London.
70.
old Rapid: character in Thomas Morton’s A Cure for the Heartache, first performed at Covent Garden in 1797.
71.
Bon ton: good breeding, good manners (an archaic term even then).
72.
Boodle’s … Yankee Doodles: Boodle’s—a gentlemen’s club in St James’ St; Yankee Doodles—brash informal Americans.
73.
shirt … opinion: i.e. it is a matter of opinion whether Lobley’s sleeveless top (as worn by an able seaman from a man-of-war) constitutes a shirt at all.
74.
stretchers: the narrow planks placed across the boat for the rowers to set their feet against.
75.
Blackheath: in the 1850s part of the county of Kent, but commonly regarded as a London suburb.
76.
Houses of Parliament: see [2.31], n.144.
77.
Holy Thursday: also Maundy Thursday, the eve of Good Friday, which commemorates the Last Supper.
78.
beadle: “inferior parish officer appointed to keep order in church [and] punish petty offenders”; wand: “a rod, stick, or switch for chastisement” (OED).
79.
Then cherish … door: Alluding to Hebrews 13:1–2: “Let brotherly love continue. Be not forgetful to entertain strangers: for thereby some have entertained angels unawares.”
80.
Whispering Gallery: this runs around the bottom of the dome, just below the windows, and is famous for its acoustics: someone who whispers to the wall can be heard distinctly on the other side of the dome, over 100 feet away.
81.
five years … Nelson: Nelson was buried in St Paul’s in 1806. This would imply that De Quincey wrote the essay in 1801, which seems unlikely.
82.
omnibuses: horse-drawn buses (from Latin omnibus, ‘for all’).
83.
gelatine cards: cheap cards, used as mementos, on which the outlines of the Crystal Palace were delineated in gold against the deep purple background of the card.
84.
Mr Laing: Samuel Laing (1812–1897) was a railway magnate and chairman of the Crystal Palace Company.
85.
hecatombs: huge public sacrifices of animals.
86.
shellfish … iniquity: There was indeed a connection (apart from the Biblical prohibition on eating shellfish in Leviticus 11:10): such supper houses provided entertainment in the late evening for the working-classes, which included both shellfish and the supposed iniquity of commercial sex.
87.
cigar divan: “a smoking-room furnished with lounges, in connection with a cigar-shop” (OED).
88.
sherbet: properly, a cooling Eastern drink with fruit and sugar; here, an effervescent drink made with sugar and bicarbonate of soda.
89.
Blackwood: Blackwood’s Magazine, published monthly (1817–1980).
90.
Mr. Martin: possibly the Mr. Martin of Martin versus Solomons, in John Wight, More Mornings at Bow Street, London: James Robins, 1827.
91.
Fitzroy-square: Georgian Square located in Fitzrovia.
92.
Berlin gloves: knitted gloves of fine dyed ‘Berlin’ wool.
93.
Temple: home of the four Inns of Court, close to the Royal Court of Justice. The Inns of Court are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales, providing accommodation and chambers, and (before the rise of tertiary legal studies in the C18th) the main site for legal training.
94.
Spenser: see [1.14]. These lines are from “Prothalamion” 132–3 (1596; Spenser 1966, 602).
95.
Of Paper hight: called ‘Paper.’ Paper Buildings are a set of chambers located in the Inner Temple, built in 1609 from timber, lath and plaster, a construction method known as ‘paperwork’.
96.
Ah! yet … perceived!: from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 104.
97.
Samuel Salt: Salt was Lamb’s father’s employer.
98.
incondite: poorly constructed or composed.
99.
Gentleman’s: the Gentleman’s Magazine; published monthly from 1733 to 1922.
100.
Hookers: Richard Hooker, 1554–1600, author of The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity.
101.
Seldens: John Selden, 1584–1654, distinguished English jurist.
102.
November 1837: In 1836 Collins’s friend Dickens under the pseudonym Timothy Sparks had fiercely attacked the advocates of stricter Sabbath Day Laws in his pamphlet Sunday Under Three Heads.
103.
area: “a sunken court giving access to the basement of a house, separated from the pavement by railings, with a flight of steps providing access” (OED).
104.
crossing-sweeper … public-house door: the crossing sweeper will work on the Sabbath when church-goers emerge and expect not to get their shoes dirty in the street; the chemist has gone to church and left his apprentice to mind the shop in case of emergency; the navigator (‘navvy’), ostler and costermongers are not at work on a Sunday, but cannot drink at the public house because it is closed during church attendance hours.
105.
orange-girl: breaking the law by attempting to sell fruit on the Sabbath; possibly suspected too of soliciting for sex-work.
106.
policeman: the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 established by Sir Robert Peel introduced police (‘Bobbies’ or ‘Peelers’) to the streets of London—hence still a novelty in 1837.
107.
drugget: a coarse woollen cloth used as a floor covering.
108.
Harley Street: well-to-do residential street in Marylebone; today many eminent medical specialists have their practices there.
109.
Titania: Queen of the Fairies in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
110.
Corfu: one of the Ionian Islands, a British Protectorate from 1815, with a naval base; ceded to Greece in 1864.
111.
Belgravia: affluent district in West London, with many elegant residences.
112.
bran-new: now usually in the form brand new.
113.
Pantechnicon: a large warehouse for storing furniture.
114.
battle of Vittoria: an allied victory over the French in June 1813.
115.
burning of Moscow: The Russians burnt Moscow in September 1812 so that it would not be taken by the French.
116.
Battle of Leipzig: This was the decisive battle against Napoleon (1813). The allies then invaded France; Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba (1814).
117.
Mr Sambo: the Sedley’s black servant.
118.
Brienne and Montmirail: battles won by Napoleon (1814) before his retreat to Paris.
119.
mizzling: departing.
120.
Aldridge’s … St Martin’s Lane: Aldridge’s sold horses and carriages; St Martin’s Lane was also known for its saddlery trade.
121.
Kiddy Downey: Possibly a nickname for a real character.
122.
cock up their jibs: stick their noses in the air.
123.
phaëton: fashionable light four-wheeled open carriage.
124.
Temple: Church and grounds used by the Knights Templar in the C12th; now a legal district with two of the Inns of Court, the Inner and Outer Temples [3.28, n.93].
125.
Benedick: term for an apparently confirmed bachelor who suddenly marries; from Benedick in Shakespeare’s Much Ado about Nothing.
126.
“Carry me back to old Virginny”: song composed by E. P. Christy and published in 1847; also known as “Floating Scow of Old Virginny”.
127.
South Down: breed of sheep celebrated for the quality of its meat.
128.
Snob: “A person who admires and seeks to imitate, or associate with, those of higher social status or greater wealth” (OED 3.c). Thackeray’s is the first recorded use of the term in this sense.
129.
Lombard Street: since mediaeval times the centre for London’s banking houses.
130.
Exeter Hall: built 1829–1831; associated with Evangelical Christianity.
131.
London Institute: the City and Guilds of London Institute for technical education, founded in 1878.
132.
Queen Caroline: Caroline of Brunswick 1768–1821; married to George IV and later rumoured to have been unfaithful to him.
133.
Brandenburg House, Hammersmith: house owned by the Margrave of Brandenburg from 1792; home of Queen Caroline 1819–1821.
134.
Peerage: 1.e. Burke’s Peerage, first published 1826.
135.
Pump and Aldgate: connoting a self-made man from a poorer part of London.
136.
St. George’s, Hanover Square: church favoured by the wealthy and fashionable for weddings.
137.
takes his seat as a peer in the House of Lords.
138.
tormenting circle of steel: György Dózsa (1470–1514), a would-be crusader who led a peasants’ revolt in Hungarian Transylvania, was executed by means of a red-hot iron crown.
139.
Druidic idol’s fiery brass: it was believed that Druids burned their human sacrifices in wicker cages; see also [3.41, n.159].
140.
For London fog, see General Introduction, n.21.
141.
Sinai … Parnassus: Moses received the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai; Parnassus was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry.
142.
Pharaoh … Red Sea: Pharaoh’s army, pursuing the Israelites escaping from Egypt, was overwhelmed when the Red Sea closed over it as it crossed (Exodus 15:19–21).
143.
Miriam: the sister of Moses and Aaron (Micah 6:4).
144.
Golden Lion … Chinksford … Betty Laxon: all fictional.
145.
Reform: the Parliamentary Reform Bill of 1832 was still fresh in memory.
146.
neguses: hot drinks made with wine.
147.
anon, Sir: Henry IV, Pt. I, Act 2, Sc. 4.
148.
funds: government bonds, usually delivering 3% per annum.
149.
devil: meat grilled with hot seasoning.
150.
seals: stamps engraved with a personal device, to be applied to legal documents.
151.
Grogram: fictional tavern in London, named after Admiral Edward Vernon (1684–1757), called Old Grogram because he wore suits made of grogram, a coarse fabric made of silk and/or mohair and wool. In 1740 he introduced the custom of diluting the sailors’ rum with water, the resultant drink being known as ‘grog’ (still Australian slang for alcohol).
152.
coster: one who sells fruit, vegetables etc. from a cart in the street.
153.
taxed cart: a sprung cart attracting a small tax.
154.
Covent GardenTheatre: the first built in 1732 but destroyed by fire. The second, to which Mayhew is referring, opened in 1809. Plays, opera, and ballets were performed there.
155.
Bleeding Heart Yard: now much changed, it exists as a cobbled courtyard off Greville Street, near Holborn Circus.
156.
Chartist: Chartism was a movement 1837–1857 which advocated better working conditions for industrial and agricultural workers. The name was derived from the People’s Charter (1838), which petitioned Parliament (in vain) for reform of voting rights, including suffrage for all men over 21. The Chartists held protest meetings (sometimes resulting in violence), especially in the Midlands and Wales. Kingsley was one of the leaders of the Christian Socialist Movement founded in 1848, which shared many of the Chartists’ aims but insisted on peaceful methods of improving the people’s welfare by educational and theological means.
157.
Smithfield: see General Introduction, n.5.
158.
Moloch: a Canaanite god whose statue was heated with fire into which child victims were thrown.
159.
wicker … prisoners: Mackaye is confusing two legends: (1) Gogmagog was the last giant inhabiting Albion (ancient Britain); (2) a huge wicker figure in human form was used by the Druids to incarcerate and burn their prisoners.
160.
grains … saut: Grains of Paradise (seeds from an African plant), cocculus indicus (fruit from a tree in India and S.E. Asia), and salt were all used as additives to disguise poor liquor or to increase thirst.
161.
reprobation: Calvin’s doctrine that God, in His infinite mercy, condemns some people to eternal torment in Hell before they are even born.
162.
Guienne: in the region of Bordeaux, France, noted for its wines.
163.
Geoffrey Chaucer’s pen: Chaucer, 1343–1400, famous for The Canterbury Tales, a collection of verse narratives whose form Morris copied in The Earthly Paradise. For several years in the 1380s Chaucer was Controller of Taxes on wines and other goods in the Port of London.
164.
Simpson’s … Strand: opened as a chess club and coffee house in 1828.
165.
Haymarket: theatre district; sex-workers would solicit for business there.
166.
Hansom: horse-drawn carriage, patented in 1834 by Joseph Hansom.
167.
Argyle Rooms: (properly ‘Argyll’), entertainment venue near Regent Street, opened 1808 and rebuilt 1818.
168.
Casino at Holborn: popular venue for dances.
169.
Rotten Row: broad track along the south side of Hyde Park, a little less than a mile long, used by fashionable horse riders in the C18–19th. Established by William III in 1690 as the first illuminated road in Britain, its name Route Du Roi was corrupted into Rotten Row.
170.
Assembly Rooms: meeting places, especially for balls, for members of the upper classes.
171.
brougham: four-wheeled horse-drawn carriage, designed in 1839 for Henry Brougham.
172.
Sally’s: a supper-room and clip-joint in the Haymarket, frequented by sex-workers and their clients.
173.
Pimlico: in the City of Westminster, developed during the Regency as an extension to Belgravia.
174.
Turkish divans: where gentlemen, recumbent on a divan, could smoke a cigar and drink coffee; see [3.25].
175.
purfled: with a decorative edging.
176.
Haymarket: London street frequented by sex-workers.
177.
in Town: in London (since ca. 1700).
178.
ain’t: both dialectal (fitting the old Amelia) and fashionable slang (fitting the new one).

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Glen Iris, VIC, Australia
Geoffrey G. Hiller
Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Peter L. Groves
Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Alan F. Dilnot

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Geoffrey G. Hiller
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Peter L. Groves
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Glen Iris, VIC, Australia
Geoffrey G. Hiller (1942–2017) (1942–2017)
Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Peter L. Groves
Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Alan F. Dilnot

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Hiller, G.G., Groves, P.L., Dilnot, A.F. (2019). Period 3: London—New Riches, New Squalor (1781–1870) . In: Hiller, G.G., Groves, P.L., Dilnot, A.F. (eds) An Anthology of London in Literature, 1558–1914. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05609-4_3

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