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Ukraine as Soviet Republic and After: Focus on Donbass

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The World Disorder

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Abstract

Ever since its incorporation in the Russian Empire, Ukraine has been of vital economic importance to Russia because of its fertile black lands and the industrial center in the Donbass. Through his NEP, Lenin planned to develop further the industry of the Donbass so as to make socialism possible in the USSR. But, after his death, Stalin shifted the focus to agriculture and the socialization of farms. Hitler, meanwhile, also saw Ukraine as indispensable to Germany’s war efforts, which is why the Wehrmacht invaded Russia in June 1941. Controlling Ukraine and the Donbass was one of Hitler’s strategic objectives. The forces of the Third Reich failed, however, to achieve success and were crushed by the Red Army in Stalingrad, the decisive battle of World War II. After the end of WWII and the death of Stalin, Khrushchev further strengthened the strategic importance of Ukraine by granting it the oblast of the Crimea, which until then belonged to the Russian Soviet Republic. The reasons for this land transfer are not entirely clear, and after 1992 the Russian Supreme Council deemed it illegitimate. Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Ukraine—now an independent republic—fell into decline. Its economy was dependent on Russia: it had no other customer for its industrial (and military) output, and it lacked the infrastructure to sustain a sophisticated industrial park. GDP per capita and industrial and agricultural production fell. Meanwhile, the newly elected Ukrainian presidents pushed through the privatization of the state enterprises, enriching a new small class of corrupt oligarchs (among them, Yulia Tymoshenko).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Administrative region of the former Russian Empire.

  2. 2.

    W. I. Lenin, “VII Moskauer Gouvernement-Parteikonferenz,” Oktober 1921, pp. 29–31, in: W. I. Lenin, Werke, August, 1921—March 1923. Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1962, Band 33, pp. 75–76.

  3. 3.

    “Erst auf einem gewissen, für unsere Zeitverhältnisse sogar sehr hohen Entwicklungsgrad der gesellschaftlichen Produktivkräfte wird es möglich, die Produktion so hoch zu steigern, daß die Abschaffung der Klassenunterschiede ein wirklicher Fortschritt, daß sie von Dauer sein kann, ohne einen Stillstand oder gar Rückgang in der gesellschaftlichen Produktionsweise herbeizuführen.” Engels, F. “Soziales aus Rußland,” in: K. Marx; F. Engels, Werke. Band 18, Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1976, pp. 556–559. This same article can also be found in K. Marx and F. Engels, Ausgewählte Schriften, Band II, Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1976, p. 39.

  4. 4.

    W. I. Lenin, “VII Moskauer Gouvernement-Parteikonferenz,” Oktober 1921, pp. 29–31, in: W. I. Lenin, Werke, August, de 1921—March 1923. Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1962, Band 33, pp. 75–76.

  5. 5.

    “An W. M. Molotow et al.,” November 21, 1921, in: W. I. Lenin, Briefe—Band IX, November 1921–March 1923. Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus bei der SED. Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1974, p. 32.

  6. 6.

    W. I. Lenin, “Rede bei der Öffnung des Parteitags 27 März 1922,” in: W. I. Lenin, Werke. August 1921–March 1923 Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1962, Band 33, pp. 285–287.

  7. 7.

    Ibidem, p. 287.

  8. 8.

    Nikita Krushchev, 2004, p. 255.

  9. 9.

    Ibidem, p. 255.

  10. 10.

    Reinhard Gehlen, 1971, pp. 29–32; Iroaki Kuromiya, 1998, pp. 351–352; P. Zhilin, et al., 1985, pp. 25–26;Winston Churchill, 1985, p. 251.

  11. 11.

    Autorenkollektiv, 1985, pp. 147–155, 163–174.

  12. 12.

    Winston Churchill, 1985, p. 347.

  13. 13.

    Joachim C. Fest, 1974, p. 653.

  14. 14.

    “Premier Stalin to Prime Minister—4 Sept. 41,” in:Winston Churchill, 1985, pp. 405–406.

  15. 15.

    Ibidem, p. 405.

  16. 16.

    Uehling Greta Lynn, 2004, pp. 3–4.

  17. 17.

    Winston Churchill, 1985, pp. 476–477.

  18. 18.

    Ibidem, p. 477; Joachim C. Fest, 1974, p. 653.

  19. 19.

    Autorenkollektiv, 1985, p. 358; Antony Beevor, 1999, p. 396; Zhilin et al., 1985, p. 198.

  20. 20.

    “Hoy bajo tus montañas de escarmiento no sólo están los tuyos enterrados: tremblando está la carne de los muertos que tocaron tu frente, ­Stalingrado.”Pablo Neruda, 1951, pp. 83–87.

  21. 21.

    This is why the Soviet Union and Britain didn’t accept the inclusion of Brazil in the council, as PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt had promised toGetúlio Vargas, since he was then closely allied with the United States.

  22. 22.

    Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe, 2014, pp. 243–244.

  23. 23.

    “Article 18. The territory of a Union Republic may not be altered without its consent.” 1936 Constitution of the USSR. Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837. Available at: <http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/1936toc.html>.

  24. 24.

    “Article 22. The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic consists of the Altai, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk, Ordjonikidze, Maritime and Khabarovsk Territories; the Archangel, Vologda, Voronezh, Gorky, Ivanovo, Irkutsk, Kalinin, Kirov, Kuibyshev, Kursk, Leningrad, Molotov, Moscow, Murmansk, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Orel, Penza, Rostov, Ryazan, Saratov, Sverdlovsk, Smolensk, Stalingrad, Tambov, Tula, Chelyabinsk, Chita, Chkalov and Yaroslavl Regions; The Tatar, Bashkir, Daghestan, Buryat-Mongolian, Kabardino-Balkarian, Kalmyk, Komi, Crimean, Mari, Mordovian, Volga German, North Ossetian, Udmurt, Checheno-Ingush, Chuvash and Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics; and the Adygei, Jewish, Karachai, Oirot, Khakass and Cherkess Autonomous Regions.” “Article 23. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic consists of the Vinnitsa, Volynsk, Voroshilovgrad, Dnepropetrovsk, Drogobych, Zhitomir, Zaporozhe, Izmail, Kamenets-Podolsk, Kiev, Kirovograd, Lvov, Nikolaev, Odessa, Poltava, Rovno, Stalino, Stanislav, Sumy, Tarnopol, Kharkov, Chemigov and Chernovitsy Regions. Chapter II—The Organization of the Soviet State.” 1936 Constitution of the USSR. Adopted December 1936. Available at: <http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons01.html#article14>.

  25. 25.

    Mark Kramer, “Why Did Russia Give Away Crimea Sixty Years Ago?”. Cold War International History Project. Available at: <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/why-did-russia-give-away-crimea-sixty-years-ago>.

  26. 26.

    Ibidem; Dmitri Volkogonov, 1999, pp. 196–200.

  27. 27.

    Mark Kramer, “Why Did Russia Give Away Crimea Sixty Years Ago?”. Cold War International History Project. Available at: <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/why-did-russia-give-away-crimea-sixty-years-ago>.

  28. 28.

    “USSR’s Nikita Khrushchev gave Russia’s Crimea away to Ukraine in only 15 minutes.” Pravda, February 19, 2009. Available at: <http://english.pravda.ru/history/19-02-2009/107129-ussr_crimea_ukraine-0/>.

  29. 29.

    John Kozy, “Mother Russia.” Nueva Sociedad—253, Buenos Aires: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, September–October 2014, pp. 131–137.

  30. 30.

    Yakov Feygin, “Ukraine is stuck in a post-Soviet condition.” OpenDemocracy, March 12, 2014. Available at: <https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/yakov-feygin/ukraine-is-stuck-in-post-soviet-condition-east-vs-west-ukrainian-economy>.

  31. 31.

    Pekka Sutela, “Ukraine after Independence—The Underachiever—Ukraine’s economy since 1991.” Paper, March 9, 2012. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available at: <http://carnegieendowment.org/files/ukraine_economy.pdf>; Yernar Zharkesho (Director of Research Institute). “Comparative analysis of trends and challenges to maintain adequate institutional and human resource capacities of public administrations in post-Soviet countries.” Background discussion paper. Academy of public Administration under the President of Kazakhstan. Available at: <http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/Internet/Documents/UNPAN93486.pdf>.

  32. 32.

    Vadym Lepetyuk, “Hyperinflation in Ukraine”—Econ1102—Guest Lecture. University of Minnesota. Available at: <http://www.econ.umn.edu/~dmiller/GLhyperinflation>.

  33. 33.

    Pekka Sutela, “The Underachiever—Ukraine’s Economy Since 1991.” Ukraine March 2012. Carnegie Papers. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available at: <http://carnegieendowment.org/files/ukraine_economy.pdf>.

  34. 34.

    “Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Ukraine—GDP of Ukraine, 1990–2013.” World macroeconomic research. Available at: <http://kushnirs.org/macroeconomics/gdp/gdp_ukraine.html>.

  35. 35.

    Nathaniel Copsey, 2010, pp. 32–33.

  36. 36.

    “Analysis: Ukraine’s and Russia’s aerospace industries will be hit hard by deteriorating relations.” London. Flightglobal, September 23, 2014.

  37. 37.

    Pekka Sutela, “The Underachiever—Ukraine’s Economy Since 1991”—Ukraine March 2012. Carnegie Papers. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available at: <http://carnegieendowment.org/files/ukraine_economy.pdf>.

  38. 38.

    Jan Cienski, (Warsaw). “Russia’s reliance on Ukraine for military hardware raises fears.” The Financial Times, April 20, 2014. Available at: <http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9cc89022-c87b-11e3-a7a1-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3QtFrdlkm>.

  39. 39.

    Alexander Dembitski, (CEIC Analyst). “The Economic Implications of Ukraine-Russia Trade Relations.” CEIC Russia Data Talk, July 8, 2014. Available at: <http://www.ceicdata.com/en/blog/economic-implications-ukraine-russia-trade-relations.> And also in: <http://www.ceicdata.com/en/blog/economic-implications-ukraine-russia-trade-relations#sthash.bdvfLVlj.dpuf>.

  40. 40.

    Alexandra Mclees and Eugene Rumer, “Saving Ukraine’s Defense Industry,” July 30, 2014. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available at: <http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/07/30/saving-ukraine-s-defense-industry>; “Sales by largest arms companies fell again in 2012 but Russian firms’ sales increased sharply.” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). 2014. Munich, January 31, 2014. Available at: <http://www.sipri.org/media/pressreleases/2014/top100_january2014>.

  41. 41.

    Arkadiusz Sarna, “The transformation of agriculture in Ukraine: from collective farms to agroholdings.” OSW Commentary—Centre for Eastern Studies. Number 127, June 2, 2014. Available at: <www.osw.waw.pl. Also in: http://aei.pitt.edu/57943/1/commentary_127.pdf>.

  42. 42.

    Ibidem.

  43. 43.

    Pekka Sutela, “The Underachiever—Ukraine’s Economy Since 1991”—Ukraine March 2012. Carnegie Papers. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available at: <http://carnegieendowment.org/files/ukraine_economy.pdf>.

  44. 44.

    Lucio Vinhas Souza and Phillippe Lombarde, 2006, pp. 276–278.

  45. 45.

    David Snelbecker, “The Political Economy of Privatization in Ukraine.” Center for Social & Economic Research: CASE Research Foundation, Warsaw 1995: Paper was prepared for the project: “Economic Reforms in the former USSR.” Reformy gospodarcze na terenie dawnego ZSRR, financed by the Comittee of Scientific Research (Komitet Badań—Naukowych); Bohdan Hawrylyshyn. Ten years of work on behalf of Ukraine: notable highlights. Part II. A Washington dinner. Available at: <http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1999/099921.shtml>.

  46. 46.

    Pekka Sutela, “Ukraine after Independence—The Underachiever—Ukraine’s economy Since 1991.” Paper—March 9, 2012. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available at: <http://carnegieendowment.org/files/ukraine_economy.pdf>.

  47. 47.

    CIA Fact Book. Available at: <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2116.html>.

  48. 48.

    “Ukraine and Russia. Why is Ukraine’s economy in such a mess?”. The Economist, March 5, 2014.

  49. 49.

    During his tenure as Prime Minister, Pavlo Lazarenko illegally appropriated US$250 million, and in August 2006, he was arrested in the United States, tried, and sentenced to 9 years in prison for money laundering, fraud, and extortion. He was released from the US Federal Correctional Institution (FCI) Terminal Island in California, in 2012. The US government has located funds deposited in several banks in various places, including Guernsey, Antigua, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Lithuania; Daryna Kaleniuk and Halyna Senyk, “Who will get stolen Lazarenko money?” Kyiv Post, September 12, 2013. Available at: <http://www.kyivpost.com/opinion/op-ed/who-will-get-stolen-lazarenko-money-329296.html>.

  50. 50.

    Chrystia Freeland, “Lunch with the FT—Tea with the FT:Yulia Tymoshenko.” The Financial Times, August 16, 2008. Available at: <http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/f4b1341a-6a58-11dd-83e8-0000779fd18c.html>; John Daly, “Ukraine’sYulia Timoshenko—Victim or Crook?”. OilPrice.com, October 12, 2011. Available at: <http://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/Ukraines-Yulia-Timoshenko-Victim-Or-Crook.html>; “Julia Tymoshenko: The iron princess.” The Independent, October 28, 2007. Available at: <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/julia-tymoshenko-the-iron-princess-397875.html>; Christopher Dickey, “Yulia Tymoshenko: She’s No Angel.” The Daily Beast, February 23, 2014. Available at: <http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/02/23/yulia-tymoshenko-she-s-no-angel.html>; Julia Ioffe, “Kiev Chameleon.” New Republic, January 5, 2010. Available at: <http://www.newrepublic.com/article/world/kiev-chameleon>.

  51. 51.

    Julia Ioffe, “Kiev Chameleon.” New Republic, January 5, 2010. Available at: <http://www.newrepublic.com/article/world/kiev-chameleon>.

  52. 52.

    Mark Rachkevych, “50 Richest Ukrainians.” Kyiv Post, June 11, 2009. Available at: <http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/50-richest-ukrainians-43241.html>.

  53. 53.

    James Meek, “The millionaire revolutionary”. The Guardian, November 26, 2004. Available at: <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/nov/26/ukraine.gender>; “Julia Tymoshenko: The iron princess”. The Independent, October 28, 2007. Available at: <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/julia-tymoshenko-the-iron-princess-397875.html>.

  54. 54.

    On the subject of the Orange Revolution, seeLuiz Alberto Moniz Bandeira, 2014, pp. 98–100.

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  1. Emeritus professor for History, University of Brasília, St. Leon-Rot, Germany

    Luiz Alberto Moniz Bandeira

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Moniz Bandeira, L.A. (2019). Ukraine as Soviet Republic and After: Focus on Donbass. In: The World Disorder. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03204-3_14

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