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Online Film Production in China Using Blockchain and Smart Contracts pp 11–67Cite as

Literature Review

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Part of the International Series on Computer Entertainment and Media Technology book series (ISCEMT)

Abstract

In this chapter, I review and analyse the literature from various fields under study and I integrate these respective bodies of work for the purpose of this project. The chapter is organised in five sections. Section 2.1 studies the political-economic angle of the research through foundations of political economy, political economy of the media, media and technology, the globalisation discourse and the context of China. Section 2.2 specifically addresses IP literature, its central position within the creative industries field, and its recent evolution. Section 2.3 reviews the tradition of audience research and identifies bridges to integrate this separate body of work with the fields of political economy, creative industries and IP. Section 2.4 formulates a framework that integrates the above disciplines in the context of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) production and crowdfunding/crowdsourcing. Section 2.5 maps out and justifies the use of the methodologies and methods used throughout the research.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The important topic of information inequalities falls outside of the remits of this work because most of the focus of the research at hand is on individuals who already have access to Internet and who are sufficiently literate to navigate it.

  2. 2.

    Bourdieu does not take into account cultural resources or gender differences, for instance.

  3. 3.

    These themes will be developed in Chaps. 3 and 4.

  4. 4.

    Notably, the dispute ended in 2009 through the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (Garner 2015). The same year, a US equity firm was investing US$75 m in Alibaba on its tenth anniversary.

  5. 5.

    At this juncture, it could also be argued that the present book, about China, which is delivered mostly in English, could place its argument automatically in a Western cultural stance. However, in order to limit this cultural bias I made a balanced use of scholarships both from Western and Chinese scholars.

  6. 6.

    In Chaps. 3 and 4, I will take a historical approach to the political economy of China to frame its context for the purpose of this research.

  7. 7.

    Including labour, technology and processes needed to produce these creative products.

  8. 8.

    The MPAA is a lobbying group representing mostly Hollywood based studios’ commercial interests.

  9. 9.

    As seen in Sect. 2.1.4.

  10. 10.

    The Department of Propaganda has been in place for 67 years and cannot be transformed overnight.

  11. 11.

    This legal framework did not exist until 1990 (Montgomery 2010).

  12. 12.

    This was one of the prerequisites of the entry of China in the WTO in 2001.

  13. 13.

    Sometimes they tried to initiate these changes: see Sony’s Betamax case (McDonald 2007).

  14. 14.

    Refer to the legal case: In A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004 (2001).

  15. 15.

    More recent cases are mobile phones and mobile devices for example.

  16. 16.

    In the same way as technological disruptions take place, it is worth mentioning that some of the largest IP rights holders were once pirates themselves: Hollywood was created on the back of technologies stolen from Edison who himself owed a lot to the Lumière brothers, Méliès and Tesla (Johns 2010).

  17. 17.

    See Appendix 2 for the case study of Movielink.

  18. 18.

    These manufacturers sometimes merged horizontally such as Sony or Matsushita with Columbia and Universal.

  19. 19.

    As seen previously in Sect. 2.1.1.

  20. 20.

    Ruggiero criticised the UGT, while Gaunlett criticised the effects theory in a series of essays and argued that it did not take into account viewing contexts since most research was laboratory-based.

  21. 21.

    Apart from the research conducted and commercial data and metrics collected by large online corporations such as YT, Baidu or Alibaba (Keane 2015). It is therefore paramount to collect independent data about Chinese audiences (be it surveying, ethnographic research or works on audience behaviours) to be able to measure the evolution of such trends.

  22. 22.

    According to Napoli, this assumes a former divide between producers and consumers of content (Napoli 2011).

  23. 23.

    This is what Lobato described as piracy as access, enterprise, and authorship (Lobato 2012).

  24. 24.

    Here ‘hype’ is used in the terms defines by Austin: as expectation and emotional engagement towards a film (Austin 2012, 30).

  25. 25.

    Except for Kickstarter and Indiegogo that are already established and focus their efforts on crowdfunding, for which they receive financial rewards (not from crowdsourcing), a lot of entrants have already exited the participatory arena. For instance, Wreckamovie.com whose motto was ‘Wreck Hollywood one movie at a time’ and which was mentioned in Baranova and Lugmayr’s article in 2013 has already disappeared at the time of writing this book. The following message can be seen on their remaining Facebook page: ‘WreckAmovie might be done but the spirit lives on!’

  26. 26.

    Guédon stresses the point that CCs is ‘not equivalent to public domain’ (Guédon 2003, 192).

  27. 27.

    John has cautioned that there has been an increasing use of the word ‘sharing’ by the online media industries in an attempt to cover up their commercial activities into an illusion of collaborative community. This is the case for example of websites such as Facebook, YouTube, Flickr, Twitter (John 2012).

  28. 28.

    Megaupload was easily accessible to the public while Silk Road was operated on the dark web as a Tor service.

  29. 29.

    Although Bourdieu admits that economic capital is the dominant one (Bourdieu 1979).

  30. 30.

    Dr. Philip Lee is both a scholar and a renowned industry practitioner who has amongst his numerous credits: Associate Producer for Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), Line Producer on The Dark Knight (2008) and Executive Producer for Cloud Atlas (2012) and The Revenant (2015).

  31. 31.

    Bauwens and Kostakis suggest a maximum scale of 1–8 wage differential for fair capital redistribution (Bauwens and Kostakis 2014, 67).

  32. 32.

    Except for Yulebao, which will be analysed in more detail in Chap. 5. But I prefer to call Yulebao a ‘VIP crowdfunding’ platform, through which only commercial films have so far been financed (Coonan 2014).

  33. 33.

    As seen in Sect. 2.2.

  34. 34.

    Refer to Sects. 2.1.4 and 2.2.2.

  35. 35.

    Issues of state control and censorship on creative content in China will be explored further in Chaps. 3 and 4.

  36. 36.

    As a side note, it is important to remind the reader at this juncture that this book is mostly concerned about young emerging urban talents who are trying to develop narrative feature films or Web/TV series independently as original long-form story-telling. These productions may also encompass all the related IP connected with the film such as music, books, video games, merchandising, and other related commercial items.

  37. 37.

    The occasional textual elements that I use may give the reader a sense of context. The meta-textual analysis is more focused on the promotional and marketing aspects of the film work under study.

  38. 38.

    China’s WTO entry.

  39. 39.

    Tencent is Alibaba’s most notable competitor in China in terms of creative content and media production, merchandising, and blockchain developments. However, as I will explain in further details from Chaps. 5, 6, and 7 with some occasional elements of comparison between Alibaba and Tencent, these two companies are not competitors in the traditional sense. For example both corporations sometimes collaborate and own shares jointly in the same affiliated companies.

  40. 40.

    Hong Kong is officially part of China but the One Child Policy has not affected the SARs (Hong Kong and Macau).

  41. 41.

    The date of the release of The Last Race and the take-over of YT by Alibaba.

  42. 42.

    The Lumière Project is a proposal. I am planning to submit the final draft of this project to SAPPRFT, Alibaba/YT, iQiyi, Tencent, LeTV and China Mobile for validation, rejection or readjustment.

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Poujol, P. (2019). Literature Review. In: Online Film Production in China Using Blockchain and Smart Contracts. International Series on Computer Entertainment and Media Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02468-0_2

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