Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Handbook of Software Engineering pp 193–222Cite as

Formal Methods

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Formal methods is a collection of techniques for improving the reliability of systems, based on mathematics and logics. While testing is still the most commonly used method for debugging and certifying software systems, newer techniques such as program verification and model checking are already in common use by major software houses. Tools for supporting these techniques are constantly being developed and improved, both in industry and in academia. This multidisciplinary research and development area gains a lot of attention, due to the rapidly growing number of critical roles that computer systems play. This chapter describes some of the main formal techniques, while presenting their advantages and limitations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Aggarwal, S., Kurshan, R.P., Sabnani, K.K.: A calculus for protocol specification and validation. In: Protocol Specification, Testing, and Verification, pp. 19–34 (1983)

    Google Scholar 

  2. Alpern, B., Schneider, F.B.: Recognizing safety and liveness. Distrib. Comput. 2(3), 117–126 (1987)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  3. Alur, R., Dill, D.L.: Automata for modeling real-time systems. In: Proceedings of ICALP, pp. 322–335 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  4. Alur, R., Courcoubetis, C., Halbwachs, N., Henzinger, T.A., Ho, P.-H., Nicollin, X., Olivero, A., Sifakis, J., Yovine, S.: The algorithmic analysis of hybrid systems. Theor. Comput. Sci. 138(1), 3–34 (1995)

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  5. Alur, R., Holzmann, G.J., Peled, D.A.: An analyzer for message sequence charts. Softw. Concepts Tools 17(2), 70–77 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  6. Alur, R., McMillan, K.L., Peled, D.A.: Deciding global partial-order properties. In: Proceedings of ICALP, pp. 41–52 (1998)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  7. Apt, K.R.: Ten years of Hoare’s logic: a survey - part 1. ACM Trans. Program. Lang. Syst. 3(4), 431–483 (1981)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  8. Apt, K.R., Kozen, D.: Limits for automatic verification of finite-state concurrent systems. Inf. Process. Lett. 22(6), 307–309 (1986)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  9. Ardeshir-Larijani, E., Gay, S.J., Nagarajan, R.: Automated verification of quantum protocols by equivalence checking. In: Proceedings of TACAS, pp. 500–514 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  10. Baier, C., Clarke, E.M., Hartonas-Garmhausen, V., Kwiatkowska, M.Z., Ryan, M.: Symbolic model checking for probabilistic processes. In: Proceedings of ICALP, pp. 430–440 (1997)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  11. Basin, D.A., Klaedtke, F., Marinovic, S., Zalinescu, E.: Monitoring of temporal first-order properties with aggregations. Formal Methods Syst. Des. 46(3), 262–285 (2015)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  12. Bengtsson, J., Larsen, K.G., Larsson, F., Pettersson, P., Yi, W.: UPPAAL - a tool suite for automatic verification of real-time systems. In: Proceedings of Hybrid Systems, pp. 232–243 (1995)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  13. Bensalem, S., Lakhnech, Y., Owre, S.: Computing abstractions of infinite state systems compositionally and automatically. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 319–331 (1998)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  14. Bouajjani, A., Esparza, J., Maler, O.: Reachability analysis of pushdown automata: application to model-checking. In: Proceedings of CONCUR, pp. 135–150 (1997)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  15. Boyer, R.S., Moore, J.S.: Computational Logic. Academic, New York (1979)

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  16. Bryant, R.E.: Graph-based algorithms for Boolean function manipulation. IEEE Trans. Comput. 35(8), 677–691 (1986)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  17. Büchi, J.R.: On a decision method in restricted second order arithmetic. Z. Math. Logik Grundlag. Math 6, 66–92 (1960)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  18. Burch, J.R., Clarke, E.M., McMillan, K.L., Dill, D.L., Hwang, L.J.: Symbolic model checking: 1020 states and beyond. In: Proceedings of LICS, pp. 428–439 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  19. Clarke, E.M., Emerson, E.A.: Design and synthesis of synchronization skeletons using branching-time temporal logic. In: Logic of Programs, pp. 52–71 (1981)

    Google Scholar 

  20. Clarke, E.M., Biere, A., Raimi, R., Zhu, Y.: Bounded model checking using satisfiability solving. Formal Methods Syst. Des. 19(1), 7–34 (2001)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  21. Clarke, E.M., Grumberg, O., Jha, S., Lu, Y., Veith, H.: Counterexample-guided abstraction refinement for symbolic model checking. J. ACM 50(5), 752–794 (2003)

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  22. Courcoubetis, C., Yannakakis, M.: Verifying temporal properties of finite-state probabilistic programs. In: Proceedings of FOCS, pp. 338–345 (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  23. Courcoubetis, C., Vardi, M.Y., Wolper, P., Yannakakis, M.: Memory-efficient algorithms for the verification of temporal properties. Formal Methods Syst. Des. 1, 275–288 (1992)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  24. Cousot, P., Cousot, R.: Abstract interpretation: a unified lattice model for static analysis of programs by construction or approximation of fixpoints. In: Proceedings of POPL, pp. 238–252 (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  25. de Moura, L.Me., Bjorner, N.: Z3, an efficient SMT solver. In: Proceedings of TACAS, pp. 337–340 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  26. Dijkstra, E.W.: Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control. Commun. ACM 8(9), 569 (1965)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Eisner, C., Fisman, D.: A Practical Introduction to PSL. Series on Integrated Circuits and Systems. Springer, Berlin (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  28. Emerson, E.A., Clarke, E.M.: Characterizing correctness properties of parallel programs using fixpoints. In: Proceedings of ICALP, pp. 169–181 (1980)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  29. Emerson, E.A., Halpern, J.Y.: “Sometimes” and “not never” revisited: on branching versus linear time temporal logic. J. ACM 33(1), 151–178 (1986)

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  30. Floyd, R.W.: Assigning meanings to programs. In: Mathematical Aspects of Computer Science, pp. 19–32. American Mathematical Society, Providence (1967)

    Google Scholar 

  31. Francez, N.: Fairness, Texts and Monographs in Computer Science, pp. 1–295. Springer, Berlin (1986)

    Book  MATH  Google Scholar 

  32. Gerth, R., Peled, D.A., Vardi, M.Y., Wolper, P.: Simple on-the-fly automatic verification of linear temporal logic. In: Proceedings of PSTV, pp. 3–18 (1995)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  33. Godefroid, P., Wolper, P.: A partial approach to model checking. In: Proceedings of LICS, pp. 406–415 (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Godefroid, P., Klarlund, N., Sen, K.: DART: directed automated random testing. In: Proceedings of PLDI, pp. 213–223 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Gödel, K.: Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme. Monatsh. Math. Phys. 38(1), 173–198 (1931)

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  36. Gordon, M.J.C., Melham, T.F.: Introduction to HOL. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1993)

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  37. Grosu, R., Smolka, S.A.: Monte Carlo model checking. In: Proceedings of TACAS, pp. 271–286 (2005)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  38. Havelund, K., Rosu, G.: Monitoring programs using rewriting. In: Proceedings of Automated Software Engineering, November 2001, pp. 135–143 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  39. Havelund, K., Peled, D.A., Ulus, D.: First order temporal logic monitoring with BDDs. In: Proceedings of FMCAD, pp. 116–123 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  40. Hoare, C.A.R.: An axiomatic basis for computer programming. Commun. ACM 12(10), 576–580 (1969)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  41. Holzmann, G.J.: The SPIN Model Checker - Primer and Reference Manual. Addison-Wesley, Boston (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  42. Holzmann, G.J., Peled, D.A., Yannakakis, M.: On nested depth first search. In: DIMACS Series in Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science, vol. 32, pp. 23–31 (1996)

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  43. Jackson, D.: Alloy: a lightweight object modelling notation. ACM Trans. Softw. Eng. Methodol. 11(2), 256–290 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Katz, G., Peled, D.A.: Synthesizing, correcting and improving code, using model checking-based genetic programming. Int. J. Softw. Tools Technol. Transfer 19(4), 449–464 (2017)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kaufmann, M., Moore, J.S.: An industrial strength theorem prover for a logic based on Common Lisp. IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng. 23, 203–213 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Könighofer, B., Alshiekh, M., Bloem, R., Humphrey, L., Könighofer, R., Topcu, U., Wang, C.: Shield synthesis. Formal Methods Syst. Des. 51(2), 332–361 (2017)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  47. Kroening, D., Strichman, O.: Decision Procedures - An Algorithmic Point of View. EATCS Series, pp. 1–304. Springer, Berlin (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  48. Kupferman, O., Vardi, M.Y.: Model checking of safety properties. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 172–183 (1999)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  49. Lamport, L.: “Sometimes” is sometimes “not never”. In: Proceedings of POPL, pp. 175–185 (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  50. Larsen, K.G., Peled, D.A., Sedwards, S.: Memory-efficient tactics for randomized LTL model checking. In: Proceedings of VSTTE, pp. 152–169 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  51. Legay, A., Delahaye, B., Bensalem, S.: Statistical model checking: an overview. In: Proceedings of RV, pp. 122–135 (2010)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  52. Manna, Z., Pnueli, A.: How to cook a temporal proof system for your pet language. In: Proceedings of POPL, pp. 141–154 (1983)

    Google Scholar 

  53. Manna, Z., Pnueli, A.: The Temporal Logic of Reactive and Concurrent Systems, Specification. Springer, Berlin (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  54. Mazurkiewicz, A.W.: Trace theory. In: Proceedings of Advances in Petri Nets, pp. 279–324 (1986)

    Google Scholar 

  55. McConnel, S.: Code Complete - A Practical Handbook of Software Construction, 2nd edn. Microsoft Press, Redmond (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  56. McMillan, K.L.: Interpolation and SAT-based model checking. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 1–13 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  57. McMillan, K.L., Qadeer, S., Saxe, J.B.: Induction in compositional model checking. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 312–327 (2000)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  58. Meyers, G.J.: The Art of Software Testing. Wiley, Hoboken (1979). 1989, ISBN 978-0-13-115007-2, pp. I-XI, 1–260

    Google Scholar 

  59. Milner, R.: Communication and Concurrency. PHI Series in Computer Science. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  60. O’Hearn, P.W., Reynolds, J.C., Yang, H.: Local reasoning about programs that alter data structures. In: Proceedings of CSL, pp. 1–19 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  61. Owicki, S., Gries, D.: An axiomatic proof technique for parallel programs. Acta Informatic 6, 319–340 (1976)

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  62. Owre, S., Rushby, J.M., Shankar, N.: PVS: a prototype verification system. In: Proceedings of CADE, pp. 748–752 (1992)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  63. Peled, D.A.: All from one, one for all, on model checking using representatives. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 409–423 (1993)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  64. Pnueli, A.: The temporal logic of programs. In: Proceedings of FOCS, pp. 46–57 (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  65. Pnueli, A., Rosner, R.: On the synthesis of a reactive module. In: Proceedings of POPL, pp. 179–190 (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  66. Pnueli, A., Rosner, R.: Distributed reactive systems are hard to synthesize. In: Proceedings of FOCS, pp. 746–757 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  67. Queille, J.-P., Sifakis, J.: Specification and verification of concurrent systems in CESAR. Symposium on Programming, pp. 337–351 (1982)

    Google Scholar 

  68. Reynolds, J.C.: Separation logic: a logic for shared mutable data structures. In: Proceedings of LICS, pp. 55–74 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  69. Ryan, P.Y.A., Schneider, S.A.: Modelling and Analysis of Security Protocols, pp. 1–300. Addison-Wesley-Longman, Boston (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  70. Safra, S.: On the complexity of omega-automata. In: Proceedings of FOCS, pp. 319–327 (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  71. Savage, S., Burrows, M., Nelson, G., Sobalvarro, P., Anderson, T.: Eraser: a dynamic data race detector for multithreaded programs. ACM Trans. Comput. Syst. 15(4), 391–411 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Sen, K., Agha, G.: CUTE and jCUTE: concolic unit testing and explicit path model-checking tools. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 419–423 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  73. Solar-Lezama, A., Rabbah, R.M., Bodik, R., Ebciogl, K.: Programming by sketching for bit-streaming programs. In: Proceedings of PLDI, pp. 281–294 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Thomas, W.: Automata on infinite objects. In: Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science, Volume B: Formal Models and Semantics (B), pp. 133–192. MIT Press, Cambridge (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  75. Valmari, A.: Stubborn sets for reduced state space generation. In: Proceedings of Applications and Theory of Petri Nets, pp. 491–515 (1989)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  76. Vardi, M.Y., Wolper, P.: An automata-theoretic approach to automatic program verification (Preliminary Report). In: Proceedings of LICS, pp. 332–344 (1986)

    Google Scholar 

  77. Walukiewicz, I.: Difficult configurations - on the complexity of LTrL. In: Proceedings of ICALP, pp. 140–151 (1998)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  78. Winskel, G.: Event structures. In: Proceedings of Advances in Petri Nets, pp. 325–392 (1986)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  79. Younes, H.L.S., Simmons, R.G.: Probabilistic verification of discrete event systems using acceptance sampling. In: Proceedings of CAV, pp. 223–235 (2002)

    Chapter  MATH  Google Scholar 

  80. Zielonka, W.: Infinite games on finitely coloured graphs with applications to automata on infinite trees. Theor. Comput. Sci. 200(1–2), 135–183 (1998)

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

    Doron A. Peled

Authors
  1. Doron A. Peled
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. College of Informatics, Korea University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of)

    Sungdeok Cha

  2. University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

    Richard N. Taylor

  3. Professor Emeritus, POSTECH, Pohang, Korea (Republic of)

    Kyochul Kang

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Peled, D.A. (2019). Formal Methods. In: Cha, S., Taylor, R., Kang, K. (eds) Handbook of Software Engineering. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00262-6_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00262-6_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-00261-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-00262-6

  • eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation