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“Lightning Calculations Lightened”

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Calculation and Computation in the Pre-electronic Era

Part of the book series: History of Computing ((HC))

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Abstract

This chapter supplements the overview of the history of the slide rule of the preceding chapter by detailed histories of discussions concerning the slide rule in a key context of use, that of energy-related calculations. It starts with an introduction to the multitude of classes of slide rules that were used in this context (Sect. 3.2) before moving on to focus on discussions of relevance to the mechanical era, through research based on the journal Power (Sect. 3.3), and the electrical era, through research on a set of journals that included the General Electric Review (Sect. 3.4). Considering that the use of the slide rule for electricity-related calculations was especially wide, the chapter refers to it in order to elaborate on some of the issues raised in the preceding chapter: the presentation of the slide rule as intelligent and therefore universal computing artifact, the advance of an argument that attributed accuracy to skillful social use (and training to such use) rather than to some inherent technical advantage, and the refusal to consider accuracy independently from a broader set of variables, of which the most central was the cost (these are recurring issues in Sects. 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, and 3.4.4).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For aspects of the history of this slide rule, see Peggy Aldrich Kidwell and Amy Ackerberg-Hastings “Slide rules on display in the United States, 1840–2010” in Scientific Instruments on Display, Silke Ackermann, Richard Kremer and Mara Miniati eds (Brill, 2014), chapter 9, 159–172; Bobby Feazel. 1994a, March. Palmer’s computing scale. Journal of the Oughtred Society 3(1): 9–17, and Bobby Feazel. 1995, March. Palmer’s computing scale revisited. Journal of the Oughtred Society 4(1): 5–8, and Colin Barnes. 1997b, Fall. Fuller’s telegraph computer Journal of the Oughtred Society 6(2): 37–38.

  2. 2.

    Reproduced in Barnes, Fuller’s telegraph computer. Barnes informs that the poem was taken from one of the three Palmer-Fuller rules in the Whipple Museum of the History of Science, Cambridge University , England, and, that it appears twice in a folio edition. It seems to come from the 1860s.

  3. 3.

    Bobby Feazel. 1994b, September. Special purpose slide rules. Journal of the Oughtred Society 3(2): 43–44. For a survey of the Faber-Castell special slide rules, see Dieter von Jezierski. 1995, October. Special slide rules of Faber-Castell . Journal of the Oughtred Society 4(2).

  4. 4.

    E.M. Horsburgh (ed.). 1914. Modern instruments and methods of calculation: A handbook of the Napier tercentenary exhibition. London: Bell and Sons.

  5. 5.

    Ibid., 167.

  6. 6.

    Ibid., 176.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., 178.

  8. 8.

    Ibid., 166.

  9. 9.

    Ibid., 172.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., 172.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., 178.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., 159.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., 179.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., 176.

  15. 15.

    Ibid., 173.

  16. 16.

    Ibid., 180.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., 176.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., 171–172.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., 162.

  20. 20.

    Ibid., 162.

  21. 21.

    Peter M. Hopp. 1999. Slide rule: Their history models and makers, 285–287. Mendham NJ: Astragal Press.

  22. 22.

    Bob De Cecaris. 1998, Spring. The mechanical engineer. Journal of the Oughtred Society 7(1): 23–24.

  23. 23.

    Keuffel & Esser Trade Catalog. 1933, 21.

  24. 24.

    The slide rule, part I. 1914, February 10. Power 39(6), 210–211, The slide rule, part II. 1914, 17 February. Power (7), 245–246 and The slide rule, part III. 1914, 24 February. Power (8), 283–284.

  25. 25.

    How to read a slide rule. Power 42(6) (1915, August 10): 192–194, and Using a slide rule. Power 42(24) (1915, December 14): 825–826.

  26. 26.

    F.R. Low. 1914, March 24. To find the number of integer places in a product or quotient. Power 39(12): 400–401; Charles G. Richardson. 1914, April 21. Fixing the decimal point in slide-rule calculations. Power 39(16): 551–552; Robert N. Miller. 1915, September 21. Slide rule quadratics. Power 42(12): 422–423; and H.B. Schell. 1916, March 28. Interpolating logarithms with the slide rule. Power 43(13): 451–452.

  27. 27.

    Walter N. Polakov. 1913, April 29. Power plant log calculator. Power 37(17): 596–597; G.H. Bascome. 1913, March 4. Calculating scales. Power 37(9): 308–309; J.P. Morrison. 1915, November 16. Handy flywheel calculator. Power 42(20): 683; and J.M. Spitzglass. 1916. Slide rule and flow computer. Power 43(8): 257.

  28. 28.

    D.E. Foster. 1914, April. Engineers’ improved slide rule. Power 39(15): 537.

  29. 29.

    A.F. Moore. 1913, February 4. Obtaining wire resistance on slide rule. Power 37(5): 151.

  30. 30.

    “The Slide Rule, I, Reading the scales: Multiplication and division”. Power 57, no. 20 (1922, May 15): 774–755 and “The slide rule, II, Proportion, square and square roots, and cubes and cube routes”. Power 57, no. 21 (1923, May 22): 812–813; Muller. 1923. Extreme accuracy with a slide rule. Power 58(23): 920.

  31. 31.

    See Power 42, no. 16 (1915, October 19): 567 and Power 53, no. 8 (1921, February 22): 329.

  32. 32.

    A.B. Solomon. 1919, September 9. An adding slide rule. Power 50(11): 437, and H. Payne, and Huylett O’Neill. 1922, April 4. A boiler-room slide rule. Power 55(14): 543–544.

  33. 33.

    W.E. Wines. 1923, July 3. Why so many calculations in the boiler test code? Power 58(1): 27–28, and Raymond L. Drew. 1926, June. The slide rule and the power man. Power 63(25): 967.

  34. 34.

    H.D. Fisher. 1916, May 16. Interpolating logarithms. Power 43(20): 703–704; R.O. Muller. 1916, June 20. Pointing off decimals with the slide rule. Power 43(25): 888; W.L. Durand. 1922, May 2. Why not use a slide rule? Power 55(18): 705, and V.K. Stanley. 1922, May 30. Why not use a slide rule? Power 55(22): 866.

  35. 35.

    See his editorial comment in Muller, Pointing off decimals with the slide rule, and his editorial piece Muller, Extreme accuracy with a slide rule.

  36. 36.

    W.E Wines, Why so many calculations in the boiler test code? 27.

  37. 37.

    Raymond L. Drew, The slide rule and the power man, 967.

  38. 38.

    Charles G. Richardson, Fixing the decimal point in slide-rule calculations: 551–552.

  39. 39.

    Schell, Interpolating logarithms with the slide rule: 451–452.

  40. 40.

    H.D. Fisher, Interpolating logarithms, 703–704.

  41. 41.

    R.O. Muller, Pointing off decimals with the slide rule, 888.

  42. 42.

    W.L. Durand, Why not use a slide rule? 705.

  43. 43.

    Frank D. Graham. 1932. Audels new electric library: Mathematics calculations, vol. XI, 235. New York: Audel.

  44. 44.

    W.L. Durand, Why not use a slide rule? 705.

  45. 45.

    V.K. Stanley, Why not use a slide rule? 866.

  46. 46.

    Muller, Extreme accuracy with a slide rule, 920.

  47. 47.

    Peter M. Hopp. Slide rule: Their history, models, and makers, chapter VI.

  48. 48.

    Ibid., 119.

  49. 49.

    Ibid., 23.

  50. 50.

    Dieter von Jezierski. 2000. Slide rule: A journey through three centuries, 37. Mendham NJ: Astragal Press.

  51. 51.

    It was first described in Der Praktische Maschinen-Constructeur (Unland) 27 (1894), 8. Florian Cajori. 1909. A history of the logarithmic slide rule and allied instruments, 91. New York: The Engineering News Publishing Company.

  52. 52.

    It was first described in the American Machinist 24 (1901): 339. See Florian Cajori, A history of the logarithmic slide rule and allied instruments, 97.

  53. 53.

    It was first described in the Electric Journal 3 (1906), 116–118. See Cajori, A history of the logarithmic slide rule and allied instruments, 103.

  54. 54.

    It was first described in the Electrical World 50 (1907), 402. See Florian Cajori, A history of the logarithmic slide rule and allied instruments, 103.

  55. 55.

    It was first described in the Electrical Review and Western Electrician 54(9) (February 27, 1909): 399. See Florian Cajori, A history of the logarithmic slide rule and allied instruments, 106.

  56. 56.

    “Special Slide Rule for Electrical Engineers”. Electrical Review and Western Electrician 54(9) (February 27, 1909): 115.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., 115.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., 115.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., 115.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., 115.

  61. 61.

    Bobby Feazel. 1997b, Fall, The roylance electrical slide rule. Journal of the Oughtred Society 6(2): 39.

  62. 62.

    J.E. Thompson. 1930. A manual of the slide rule, 206. New York: Van Nostrand.

  63. 63.

    Keuffel & Esser Trade Catalog.1933.

  64. 64.

    Bobby Feazel. 1997a, Fall. Electrical Wireman’s combined gage and calculator . Journal of the Oughtred Society 6(2): 9–10.

  65. 65.

    Howard Andrews, and Conrad Schure. 2001, Spring. A slide rule for wire drawing calculations . Journal of the Oughtred Society 10(1): 15–17.

  66. 66.

    New calculator now sold in the United States Instruments (June, 1928): 294.

  67. 67.

    Robert Otnes. 1991, October. The Otis king slide rule. Journal of the Oughtred Society 0(0): 7–8.

  68. 68.

    Peter Hopp. 1995, October. Otis-king update. Journal of the Oughtred Society 4(2): 33–40, and Peter Hopp. 1996, October. Otis-king: Conclusions? Journal of the Oughtred Society 5(2): 62–67.

  69. 69.

    See Colin Barnes. 1997a, Fall. Dating Otis-king slide rules. Journal of the Oughtred Society 6(2): 35–36, and Richard Lyon. 1998, Spring. Dating of the Otis king: An alternative theory developed through use of the internet. Journal of the Oughtred Society 7(1): 33–37.

  70. 70.

    Ysebrand Schuitema. 1993, October. The ALRO circular slide rule. Journal of the Oughtred Society 2(2): 28.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., 30.

  72. 72.

    Ibid., 25.

  73. 73.

    Frederick S. Dellenbaugh, Jr. 1921, February. An electromechanical device for rapid schedule harmonic analysis of complex waves. AIEE Journal, 142.

  74. 74.

    P.L. Alger , and H.W. Samson. 1922, July. A new power-factor slide rule. General Electric Review 25(7): 456.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., 455–456.

  76. 76.

    Ibid., 455–456.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., 457.

  78. 78.

    James E. Brittain. 1985. From computor to electrical engineer: The remarkable career of Edith Clarke. IEEE Transactions on Education E-28(4): 185.

  79. 79.

    Edith Clarke. 1923, June. A transmission line calculator . General Electric Review 26(6): 380.

  80. 80.

    James E. Brittain. From computor to electrical engineer: The remarkable career of Edith Clarke, 185.

  81. 81.

    Robert W. Adams.1915, January. A transmission line calculator General Electric Review 18(1): 28.

  82. 82.

    Ibid., 29.

  83. 83.

    H. Goodwin. 1923, February. Qualitative analysis of transmission lines. AIEE Transactions 42, 25 and 27.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., 40.

  85. 85.

    M.K. Kruger. 1929, July. A slide rule for filter computations. Instruments, 233–238.

  86. 86.

    Aristotle Tympas, Fotini Tsaglioti, Theodore Lekkas. 2008. Universal machines vs. national languages: Computerization as production of new localities. In Proceedings of Technologies of Globalization, ed. Reiner Anderl, Bruno Arich-Gerz, Rudi Schmiede, Darmstadt: TU Darmstadt.

  87. 87.

    See Aristotle Tympas and Fotini Tsaglioti. 2016. L’usage du calcul àla production: le cas des nomogrammes pour machines-outils au XXe siècle. In Le monde du génie industriel au XXe siècle: Autour de Pierre Bézier et de machines-outils, ed. Serge Benoit, and Alain Michel, 63–73. Paris: Collection Sciences Humaines et Technologie , Pôle editorial de l’UTBM.

  88. 88.

    Edith Clarke , A transmission line calculator .

  89. 89.

    Get this handy new Ohmite Ohm ’s law calculator. Instruments (Index 1941), 45.

  90. 90.

    See NELA Bulletin 10, part III, New Series, no. 9 (1916), 782–783.

  91. 91.

    A five-place calculating device. Electrical World 66 (1915, September 11): 604.

  92. 92.

    Ibid.

  93. 93.

    Lighting calculations lightened. Westinghouse Engineer 8 (1948, November): 174.

  94. 94.

    G.S. Merrill. 1946, June. Slide-disk calculator . General Electric Review 49, 31.

  95. 95.

    The monogram salutes… The GE Monogram 17(10) (1940, October), 17.

  96. 96.

    The monogram salutes… The GE Monogram 18(4) (1941, April), 17.

  97. 97.

    Edith Clarke. 1944. Trends in power system analysis. Midwest Power Conference Proceedings 7, 172–180.

  98. 98.

    The monogram salutes… The GE Monogram 18(4) (1941, April), 17.

  99. 99.

    P.L. Alger, and H.W. Samson, A new power-factor slide rule, 455.

  100. 100.

    Brittain, From computor to electrical engineer: The remarkable career of Edith Clarke, 186; P.H. Smith. 1939, January. Transmission line calculator Electronics 12, 29-31; and E.F. O’Neill ed. 1985. A history of engineering and science in the Bell System: Transmission technology, 1925–1975, 56. AT&T Bell Laboratories.

  101. 101.

    M.K. Kruger, A slide rule for filter computations, 233.

  102. 102.

    Ibid., 233.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., 233–234.

  104. 104.

    Ibid., 234.

  105. 105.

    M.P. Weinbach. 1948. Electric power transmission. New York: Macmillan.

  106. 106.

    Μ.Κ. Kruger, A slide rule for filter computations, 234.

  107. 107.

    Ibid., 234–235.

  108. 108.

    Ibid., 238.

  109. 109.

    Robert Otnes, and Conrad Schure. 1996, March. The Blundell vector slide rule. Journal of the Oughtred Society 5(1), 19.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., 19.

  111. 111.

    Peter M. Hopp, Slide rule: Their history, models, and makers, 183–187.

  112. 112.

    Clyde Clason. 1964. Delights of the slide rule, 225. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co. Clason also described it in detail in pages 240–241.

  113. 113.

    The Whythe complex slide rule in fuller style. Journal of the Oughtred Society 8(1) (1999, Spring): 15–17.

  114. 114.

    Elbert C. Allen. 1928, 25 April. Slide rule calculation of vectors. Electrical World LIV(8), 362.

  115. 115.

    Peter M. Hopp, Slide rule: Their history, models, and makers, 202–206.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., 212.

  117. 117.

    C.A. Imburgia , G.W. Stagg, L. Kirchmayer, and K.R. Geiser. 1955. Design and application of a penalty factor computer . American Power Conference Proceedings 17, 697.

  118. 118.

    Ibid., 689.

  119. 119.

    Ibid., 687.

  120. 120.

    Ibid., 689.

  121. 121.

    Ibid., 697.

  122. 122.

    Task Force Plans System Expansion. Electrical World (1959, July 20): 88–89.

  123. 123.

    Ibid.

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    Aristotle Tympas

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Tympas, A. (2017). “Lightning Calculations Lightened”. In: Calculation and Computation in the Pre-electronic Era. History of Computing. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84882-742-4_3

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