Skip to main content

Exercise and Pregnancy: Hormonal Considerations

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Endocrinology of Physical Activity and Sport

Part of the book series: Contemporary Endocrinology ((COE))

  • 2851 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter summarizes information related to exercise during pregnancy and endocrine responses to that exercise. Hormones released from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenals, pancreas, adipose tissue, thyroid, parathyroid, liver, and placenta are included. Although a number of hormonal responses to exercise during pregnancy have been described in this chapter, the overall importance is unclear. Much remains unanswered and more studies with more subjects are needed before confident conclusions can be reached regarding exercise during pregnancy, changes in hormonal concentrations, and interpretations of the meaning of those changes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Hackney AC, Viru A. Research methodology: endocrinologic measurements in exercise science and sports medicine. J Athl Train. 2008;43(6):631–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Hackney AC. Exercise as a stressor to the human neuroendocrine system. Medicina (Kaunas). 2006;42(10):788–97.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Hackney AC. Stress and the neuroendocrine system: the role of exercise as a stressor and modifier of stress. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2006;1(6):783–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Voet D, Voet JG. Biochemistry. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Sandman CA, Glynn L, Schetter CD, et al. Elevated maternal cortisol early in pregnancy predicts third trimester levels of placental corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH): priming the placental clock. Peptides. 2006;27:1457–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Sandman CA, Wadhwa P, Glynn L, et al. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone and fetal responses in human pregnancy. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;897:66–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Lindsay JR, Nieman LK. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in pregnancy: challenges in disease detection and treatment. Endocr Rev. 2005;26(6):775–99.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Inder WJ, Hellemans J, Swanney MP, et al. Prolonged exercise increases peripheral plasma ACTH, CRH, and AVP in male athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1998;85(3):835–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Marieb EN, Hoehn K. Human anatomy & physiology. 7th ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Lieberman M, Marks A. Basic medical biochemistry. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Williams; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Bessinger RC, McMurray RG, Hackney AC. Substrate utilization and hormonal responses to moderate intensity exercise during pregnancy and after delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;186:757–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Mazlan M, Spence-Jones C, Chard T, et al. Circulating levels of GH-releasing hormone and GH during human pregnancy. J Endocrinol. 1990;125:161–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Eriksson L, Frankenne F, Eden S, et al. Growth hormone 24-h serum profiles during pregnancy-lack of pulsatility for the secretion of the placental variant. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1989;96:949–53.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Frankenne F, Closset J, Gomez F, et al. The physiology of growth hormones (GHs) in pregnant women and partial characterization of the placental GH variant. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988;66:1171–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Baumann G, Davila N, Shaw MA, et al. Binding of human growth hormone (GH)-variant (placental GH) to GH-binding proteins in human plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991;73:1175–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Yen SSC. Endocrine-metabolic adaptations in pregnancy. In: Yen SSC, Jaffe RB, editors. Reproductive endocrinology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Jovanovic L, Kessler A, Peterson CM. Human maternal and fetal response to graded exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1985;58(5):1719–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Shangold M. Exercise and the adult female: hormonal and endocrine effects. In: Terjung RL, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews, vol. 12. Lexington, Ma: The Collamore Press; 1984. p. 53–79.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Haddow JE, McClain MR, Lambert-Messerlian G, et al. Variability in thyroid-stimulating hormone suppression by human chronic gonadotropin during early pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(9):3341–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Benhadi N, Wiersinga WM, Reitsma JB, et al. Higher maternal TSH levels in pregnancy are associated with increased risk for miscarriage, fetal or neonatal death. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009;160:985–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Foss ML, Keteyian SJ. Fox’s physiological basis for exercise and sport. 6th ed. Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw Hill; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  22. de Meirleir K, Naaktgeboren N, Van Steirteghem A, et al. Beta-endorphin and ACTH levels in peripheral blood during and after aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1986;55(1):5–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. McMurray RG, Berry MJ, Katz V. The beta-endorphin responses of pregnant women during aerobic exercise in the water. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22(3):298–303.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Bankowski BJ, Zacur HA. Dopamine agonist therapy for hyperprolactinemia. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2003;46(2):349–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Rauramo I, Andersson B, Laatikainen T, et al. Stress hormones and placental steroids in physical exercise during pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1982;89:921–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Katz VL, McMurray R, Turnbull CD, et al. The effects of immersion and exercise on prolactin during pregnancy. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1990;60(3):191–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Risberg A, Olsson K, Lyrenäs S, et al. Plasma vasopressin, oxytocin, estradiol, and progesterone related to water and sodium excretion in normal pregnancy and gestational hypertension. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2009;88:639–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Convertino VA, et al. Plasma volume, osmolality, vasopressin, and renin activity during graded exercise in man. J Physiol. 1981;50:123–8.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Witten GA, Stewart DE, Graves MP, et al. Plasma corticotrophin releasing factor and vasopressin responses to exercise in normal man. Clin Endocrinol. 1991;35(4):311–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Dabo F, Nyberg F, Zhou Q, et al. Plasma levels of β-endorphin during pregnancy and use of labor analgesia. Reprod Sci. 2010;17(8):742–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Hoffman DI, Abboud TK, Haase HR, et al. Plasma beta-endorphin concentrations prior to and during pregnancy, in labor, and after delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984;150(5 Pt 1):492–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Räisänen I. Plasma levels and diurnal variation of β-endorphin, β-lipotropin and corticotropin during pregnancy and early puerperium. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1988;27(1):13–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. McMurray RG, Katz VL, Berry MJ, et al. The effect of pregnancy on metabolic responses during rest, immersion, and aerobic exercise in the water. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;158:481–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Canniff KM, Smith MS, Lacy DB, et al. Glucagon secretion and autonomic signaling during hypoglycemia in late pregnancy. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006;291:788–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Artal R, Platt LD, Sperling M, et al. Exercise in pregnancy: maternal cardiovascular and metabolic responses in normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1981;140:123–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. McMurray RG, Hackney AC, Giuon WK, et al. Metabolic and hormonal responses to low-impact aerobic dance during pregnancy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(1):41–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Davis CTM, Few JD. Effects of exercise on adrenocortical function. J Appl Physiol. 1973;35:887–91.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Shepard RJ, Shek PN. Associations between physical activity and susceptibility to cancer: possible mechanisms. Sports Med. 1998;26(5):293–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Russell JA, Douglas AJ, Brunton PJ. Reduced hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis stress responses in late pregnancy: central opioid inhibition and noradrenergic mechanisms. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1148:428–38.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Fowden AL, Forhead AJ. Hormones as epigenetic signals in developmental programming. Exp Physiol. 2009;94(6):607–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Bonen A, Campagna P, Gilchrist L, et al. Substrate and endocrine responses during exercise at selected stages of pregnancy. J Appl Physiol. 1992;73:134–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Bonen A, Campagna P, Gilchrist L, et al. Substrate and hormonal responses during exercise classes at selected stages of pregnancy. Can J Appl Physiol. 1995;20:440–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Lotgering FK, Spinnewijn WEM, Struijk PC, Boomsma F, Wallenburg HCS. Respiratory and metabolic responses to endurance cycle exercise in pregnant and postpartum women. Int J Sports Med. 1998;19:193–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. McMurray RG, Brabham VW, Hackney AC. Catecholamine responses in pregnant women: comparisons between low-impact aerobic dance and treadmill walking. Biol Sport. 1998;15:25–32.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Artal R, Wisewell R, Romem Y. Hormonal responses to exercise in diabetic and nondiabetic pregnant patients. Diabetes. 1985;34 Suppl 2:78–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Eneroth-Grimfors E, Bevegärd S, Nilsson BA, et al. Effects of exercise on catecholamines and plasma rennin activity in pregnant women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1988;61(6):519–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Cooper KA, Hunyor SN, Boyce ES, et al. Fetal heart rate and maternal cardiovascular and catecholamine responses to dynamic exercise. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1987;27(3):220–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Jurkowski JE, Jones NL, Walker WC, et al. Ovarian hormonal responses to exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1978;44(1):109–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Brooks GA, Fahey TD, Baldwin KM. Exercise physiology: human bioenergetics and its applications. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Soultanakis HN, Artal R, Wisewell RA. Prolonged exercise in pregnancy: glucose homeostasis, ventilatory and cardiovascular responses. Semin Perinatol. 1996;20:315–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Clapp JF, Wesley M, Sleamaker RH. Thermoregulatory and metabolic responses to jogging prior to and during pregnancy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987;19:124–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Felig P. Amino acid metabolism in man. Annu Rev Biochem. 1975;44:933–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Felig P, Kim YJ, Lynch V, et al. Amino acid metabolism during starvation in human pregnancy. J Clin Invest. 1972;51:1195–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Hopkins SA, Baldi JC, Cutfield WS, et al. Effects of exercise training on maternal hormonal changes in pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol. 2011;74:495–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Hulver MW, Houmard JA. Plasma leptin and exercise: recent findings. Sports Med. 2003;33(7):473–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Freemark M. Regulation of maternal metabolism by pituitary and placental hormones: roles in fetal development and metabolic programming. Horm Res. 2006;65(3):41–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Tamura T, Goldenberg RL, Johnston KE, et al. Serum leptin concentrations during pregnancy and their relationship to fetal growth. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;91:389–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Clapp JF, Kiess W. Effects of pregnancy and exercise on concentrations of the metabolic markers tumor necrosis factor α and leptin. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182(2):300–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Lof M, Olausson H, Bostrom K, et al. Changes in basal metabolic rate during pregnancy in relation to changes in body weight and composition, cardiac output, insulin-like growth factor I, and thyroid hormones and in relation to fetal growth. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:678–85.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Yassa L, Marqusee E, Rachael F, et al. Thyroid hormone early adjustment in pregnancy (The THERAPY) Trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(7):3234–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Ciloglu F, Peker I, Pehlivan A, et al. Exercise intensity and its effects on thyroid hormones. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2005;26(6):830–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Seely EW, Brown EM, DeMaggio DM, et al. A prospective study of calciotropic hormones in pregnancy and post partum: reciprocal changes in serum intact parathyroid hormone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;176(1 Pt 1):214–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Naylor KE, Iqbal P, Fledelius R, et al. The effect of pregnancy on bone density and bone turnover. J Bone Miner Res. 2000;15(1):129–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Bouassida A, Latiri I, Bouassida S, et al. Parathyroid hormone and physical exercise: a brief review. J Sports Sci Med. 2006;5:367–74.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Wagner CL, Greer FR. Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2008;122(5):1142–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Hollis BW, Wagner CL. Nutritional vitamin D status during pregnancy: reasons for concern. CMAJ. 2006;174(9):1287–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:266–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Pasco JA, Wark JD, Carlin JB, et al. Maternal vitamin D in pregnancy may influence not only offspring bone mass but other aspects of musculoskeletal health and adiposity. Med Hypotheses. 2008;71:266–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Javaid MK, Crozier SR, Harvey NC, et al. Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and childhood bone mass at age 9 years: a longitudinal study. Lancet. 2006;367:36–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Barker DJ. The fetal and infant origins of disease. Eur J Clin Invest. 1995;25:457–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Brock K, Huang WY, Fraser DR, et al. Low vitamin D status is associated with physical inactivity, obesity and low vitamin D intake in a large US sample of healthy middle-aged men and women. J Steroid Biochem. 2010;121:462–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Taskapan H, Wei M, Oreopoulos DG. 25(OH) Vitamin D3 in patients with chronic kidney disease and those on dialysis: rediscovering its importance. Int Urol Nephrol. 2006;38:323–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Heaney RP, Armas LA, Shary JR, et al. 25-Hydroxylation of vitamin D3: relation to circulating vitamin D3 under various input conditions. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1738–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Brown J. Nutrition through the life cycle. 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Weissgerber TL, Wolfe LA. Physiological adaptation in early human pregnancy: adaptation to balance maternal-fetal demands. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2006;31:1–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Hiden U, Glitzner E, Hartmann M, et al. Insulin and the IGF system in the human placenta of normal and diabetic pregnancies. J Anat. 2009;215:60–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Fowden AL, Forhead AJ. Endocrine regulation of feto-placental growth. Horm Res. 2009;72:257–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Bauer MK, Harding JE, Bassett NS, et al. Fetal growth and placental function. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1998;140:115–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Clapp JF. Influence of endurance exercise and diet on human placental development and fetal growth. Placenta. 2006;27:527–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Hopkins SA, Baldi JC, Cutfield WS, et al. Exercise training in pregnancy reduces offspring size without changes in maternal insulin sensitivity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(5):2080–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Lacroix MC, Guibourdenche J, Frendo JL, et al. Human placental growth hormone—a review. Placenta. 2002;23(16):S87–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Fuglsang J, Ovesen P. Aspects of placental growth hormone physiology. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2006;16:67–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Lindberg BS, Nilsson BA. Variations in maternal plasma levels of human placental lactogen (HPL) in normal pregnancy and labour. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw. 1973;80(7):619–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Dschietzig T, Bartsch C, Richter C, et al. Relaxin, a pregnancy hormone, is a functional endothelin-1 antagonist: attenuation of endothelin-1-mediated vasoconstriction by stimulation of endothelin type-B receptor expression via ERK-1/2 and nuclear factor-kB. Circ Res. 2003;92:32–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Ritchie JR. Orthopedic considerations during pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2003;46(2):456–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Schauberger CW, Rooney BL, Goldsmith L, et al. Peripheral joint laxity increases in pregnancy but does not correlate with serum relaxin levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174(2):667–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Whittaker PG, Edwards JRG, Randolph C, et al. Abnormal relaxin secretion during pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes. Exp Biol Med. 2003;228:33–40.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. Carlton Bessinger PHD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bessinger, R.C. (2013). Exercise and Pregnancy: Hormonal Considerations. In: Constantini, N., Hackney, A. (eds) Endocrinology of Physical Activity and Sport. Contemporary Endocrinology. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-314-5_17

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-314-5_17

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-62703-313-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-62703-314-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics