Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

HIV and Nutrition

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Preventive Nutrition

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health ((NH))

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and nutritional status maintain a critical and important relationship that is incompletely understood. Consequences of chronic viral infections may have organ-specific effects as well as general effects on health and function. HIV infection is a nutritionally progressive disorder with major metabolic changes in nutrient utilization as the balance of viral replication, immune response, and inflammation changes over time. HIV treatment has its own specific metabolic effects which have been discussed elsewhere (1–3). Worldwide, nutrition and HIV are important determinants of clinical outcomes including survival, with special importance in areas of food insecurity like sub-Saharan Africa. States of normal and abnormal nutrition may affect the progression of HIV and response to treatment in different ways. Poor nutrition in the patient infected with HIV not only has implications for the individual, but in conjunction with progressive immune dysfunction also has significant implications for community and global health.

Key Points

• The interaction of HIV and nutrition is incompletely understood.

• Immune manifestations of protein-energy malnutrition overlap with immune manifestations of HIV.

• Protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent in areas where HIV is also prevalent.

• As antiretroviral therapy becomes more accessible and life expectancy for those infected with HIV increases, there will be increased need for research involving nutrition and metabolism in conjunction with medical treatment in developing settings.

• The impact of micronutrient supplementation in different settings is beginning to be elucidated.

• Generalized recommendations of macronutrient supplementation in HIV cannot be made given very scant data.

• Breastfeeding is the recommended mode of feeding where formula feeding is not acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable, and safe.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 239.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Kotler, D.P. (2008) HIV and antiretroviral therapy: lipid abnormalities and associated cardiovascular risk in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 49, S79–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Tebas, P. (2008) Insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus associated with antiretroviral use in HIV-infected patients: pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment options. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 49, S86–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Triant, V.A., Lee, H., Hadigan, C., and Grinspoon, S.K. (2007) Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92, 2506–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2008) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2008. (Accessed at http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008)

  5. Fourth Annual Report to Congress on PEPFAR (2008) President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. (Accessed at http://www.pepfar.gov/documents/organization/100029.pdf )

  6. World Health Organization (2008) Towards Universal Access, Scaling up Priority HIV/AIDS Interventions in the Health Sector. Progress Report 2008. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/towardsuniversalaccessreport2008.pdf)

  7. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2007) Towards universal access: assessment by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS on scaling up HIV prevention, treatment, care and support. (Accessed at http://www.unaids.org/en/PolicyAndPractice/TowardsUniversalAccess/default.asp)

  8. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2006) Technical Consultation of the Global Partners—Forum on Children Affected by HIV and AIDS: Universal Access to Prevention, Treatment and Care. (Accessed at http://www.unicef.org/aids/files/TechConsultChildren06.pdf)

  9. Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration (2008) Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet 372, 293–9.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Quinn, T.C., Wawer, M.J., Sewankambo, N., Serwadda, D., Li, C., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Meehan, M.O., Lutalo, T., Gray, R.H. (2000) Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med 342, 921–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Gray, R.H., Wawer, M.J., Brookmeyer, R., Sewankambo, N.K., Serwadda, D., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Lutalo, T., Li, X., vanCott, T., Quinn, T.C., Rakai Project Team (2001) Probability of HIV-1 transmission per coital act in monogamous, heterosexual, HIV-1-discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda. Lancet 357, 1149–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Buchbinder, S.P., Vittinghoff, E., Heagerty, P.J., Celum, C.L., Seage, G.R. 3rd, Judson, F.N., McKirnan, D., Mayer, K.H., Koblin, B.A. (2005) Sexual risk, nitrite inhalant use, and lack of circumcision associated with HIV seroconversion in men who have sex with men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 39, 82–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Garnett, G.P., White, P.J., Ward, H. (2008) Fewer partners or more condoms? Modelling the effectiveness of STI prevention interventions. Sex Transm Infect 84 Suppl 2, ii4–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Gray, R.H., Kigozi, G., Serwadda, D., Makumbi, F., Watya, S., Nalugoda, F., Kiwanuka, N., Moulton, L.H., Chaudhary, M.A., Chen, M.Z., Sewankambo, N.K., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Bacon, M.C., Williams, C.F., Opendi, P., Reynolds, S.J., Laeyendecker, O., Quinn, T.C., Wawer, M.J. (2007) Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial. Lancet 369, 657–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Garnett, G.P., Baggaley, R.F. (2008) Treating our way out of the HIV pandemic: could we, would we, should we? Lancet 373 (9657): 9–11.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Quinn, T.C. (2008) HIV epidemiology and the effects of antiviral therapy on long-term consequences. AIDS 22, S7–12

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project (2004) HIV/AIDS: A Guide for Nutritional Care and Support. 2nd Edition. Academy for Educational Development, Washington DC.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Raiten, D.J., Grinspoon, S., Arpadi, S. (2005). Nutritional considerations in the use of ART in resource-limited settings. Consultation on Nutrition and HIV/AIDS in Africa: Evidence, lessons and recommendations for action. Department of Nutrition for Health and Development, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Kadiyala, S., Gillespie, S. (2004) Rethinking food aid to fight AIDS. Food Nutr Bull 25, 271–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Friis, H. (2002) Micronutrients and HIV Infection. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton Florida USA.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bukusuba, J., Kikafunda, J.K., Whitehead R.G. (2007) Food security status in households of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in a Ugandan urban setting. Br J Nutr 98, 211–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Olupot-Olupot, P., Katawera, A., Cooper, C., Small, W., Anema, A., Mills, E. (2008) Adherence to antiretroviral therapy among a conflict-affected population in Northeastern Uganda: a qualitative study. AIDS 22, 1882–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Haile, M. (2005) Weather patterns, food security and humanitarian response in sub-Saharan Africa. Philosophical Trans R Soc London B: Bio Sci 360, 2169–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. United Nations (2006) The Millennium Development Goals Report (Accessed at http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2006/MDGReport2006.pdf)

  25. Ag Bendech, M., Chauliac, M., Malvy, D. (1996) Variability of home dietary habits of families living in Bamako (Mali) according to their socioeconomic status. Sante 5, 285–97.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Shepherd, R (1999). Social determinants of food choice. Proc Nutr Soc 4, 807–12.

    Google Scholar 

  27. UNAIDS. (2004) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, 2004. UNAIDS, Geneva.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Joffe, M. (2007) Health, livelihoods, and nutrition in low-income rural systems. Food Nutr Bull 2, S227–36.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Gillespie, S., Haddad, L., Jackson, R. (2001) HIV/AIDS, Food and nutrition security: Impacts and actions. In Nutrition and HIV/AIDS. Nutrition Policy Paper no. 20. UN Subcommittee on Nutrition, Geneva.

    Google Scholar 

  30. World Health Assembly (2004) Scaling up treatment and care within a coordinated and comprehensive response to HIV/AIDS. Fifty-Seventh World Health Assembly, WHA 57.14. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdffiles/WHA57/A57R14-en.pdf).

  31. Macallan, D.C. (1999) Wasting in HIV infection and AIDS. J Nutr 129, 238S–42S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Semba, R.D., Tang, A.M. (1999) Micronutrients and the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Br J Nutr 81, 181–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Waibale, P., Bowlin, S.J., Mortimer, E.A., Whalen, C. (1999) The effect of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection and stunting on measles immunoglobulin-G levels in children vaccinated against measles in Uganda. Int J Epidemiol 28, 341–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Niyongabo, T., Henzel D., Idi, M., et al. (1999) Tuberculosis, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and malnutrition in Burundi. Nutrition 14, 289–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Taniguchi, K., Rikimaru, T., Yartley, J.E, et al. (1999) Immunological background in children with persistent diarrhea in Ghana. Pediatr Int 41, 162–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Babamento, G., Kotler, D.P. (1997) Malnutrition in HIV infection. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 26, 393–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Piwoz, E.G., Preble, E.A. (2000) HIV/AIDS and Nutrition: A review of literature and recommendations for nutritional care and support in Sub-Saharan Africa. SARA: US Agency for International Development.

    Google Scholar 

  38. van der Sande, M.A., Schim van der Loeff, M.F., Aveika, A.A., Sabally, S., Togun, T., Sarge-Njie, R., Alabi, A.S., Jaye, A., Corrah, T., Whittle, H.C. (2004) Body mass index at time of HIV diagnosis: a strong and independent predictor of survival. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 37, 1288–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Jerene, D. (2006) Predictors of early death in a cohort of Ethiopian patients treated with HAART. BMC Infect Dis 6, 136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Wanke, C.A., Silva, M., Knox, T.A., Forrester, J., Speigelman, D., Gorbach, S.L. (2000) Weight loss and wasting remain common complications in individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 3, 803–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Mangili, A., Murman, D.H., Zampini, A.M., Wanke, C.A. (2006) Nutrition and HIV infection: review of weight loss and wasting in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy from the nutrition for healthy living cohort. Clin Infect Dis 42, 836–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Jones, C.Y., Hogan, J.W., Snyder, B., Klein, R.S., Rompalo, A., Schuman P., Carpenter C.C., HIV Epidemiology Research Study Group. (2003) Overweight and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) progression in women: associations HIV disease progression and changes in body mass index in women in the HIV epidemiology research study cohort. Clin Inf Dis 37, S69–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Shevitz, A.H., Knox, T.A., Spiegelman, D., Roubenoff, R., Gorbach, S.L., Skolnik, P.R. (1999) Elevated resting energy expenditure among HIV-seropositive persons receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 13, 1351–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Melchior, J.C., Raguin, G., Boulier, A., Bouvet, E., Rigaud, D., Matheron, S., Casalino, E., Vilde, J.L., Vachon, F., Coulaud, J.P., Apfelbaum, M. (1993) Resting energy expenditure in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: comparison between patients with and without secondary infections. Am J Clin Nutr 57, 614–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Grinspoon, S, Corcoran, C, Miller, K, Wang, E, Hubbard, J, Schoenfeld, D, Anderson, E, Basgoz, N, Klibanski, A. (1998) Determinants of increased energy expenditure in HIV-infected women. Am J Clin Nutr 68, 720–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Macallan, D.C., Noble, C., Baldwin, C., Jebb, S.A., Prentice, A.M., Coward, W.A., Sawyer, M.B., McManus, T.J., Griffin, G.E. (1995) Energy expenditure and wasting in human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 333, 83–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Zulu, I., Hassan, G., Njobvu, L., Dhaliwal, W., Sianongo, S., Kelly, P. (2008) Cytokine activation is predictive of mortality in Zambian patients with AIDS-related diarrhoea. BMC Infect Dis 8, 156.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Arpadi, S.M., Cuff, P.A., Kotler, D.P., Wang, J., Bamji, M., Lange, M., Pierson, R.N., Matthews, D.E (2000). Growth velocity, fat-free mass and energy intake are inversely related to viral load in HIV-infected children. J Nutr 130, 2498–502.

    Google Scholar 

  49. World Health Organization (2005) Interim Who Clinical Staging Of HIV/AIDS and HIV/AIDS Case Definitions For Surveillance. Geneva. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/clinicalstaging.pdf)

  50. Grinspoon, S., Corcoran, C., Miller, K., Biller, B.M., Askari, H., Wang, E., Hubbard, J., Anderson, E.J., Basgoz, N., Heller, H.M., Klibanski, A. (1997) Body composition and endocrine function in women with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome wasting. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82, 1332–7. Erratum in: J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1997) 82, 3360.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Corcoran, C., Grinspoon, S. (1999) Treatments for wasting in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 340, 1740–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Heijligenberg, R., Romijn, J.A., Westerterp, K.R., Jonkers, C.F., Prins, J.M., Sauerwein, H.P. (1997) Total energy expenditure in human immunodeficiency virus-infected men and healthy controls. Metabolism 46, 1324–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Kotler, D.P. (1998) Nutritional management of patients with AIDS-related anorexia. Semin Gastrointest Dis 9, 189–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Isaac, R., Jacobson, D., Wanke, C., Hendricks, K., Knox, T.A., Wilson, I.B. (2008) Declines in dietary macronutrient intake in persons with HIV infection who develop depression. Public Health Nutr 11, 124–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Macallan, D.C., McNurlan, M.A., Milne, E., Calder, A.G., Garlick, P.J., Griffin, G.E. (1995) Whole-body protein turnover from leucine kinetics and the response to nutrition in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Clin Nutr 61, 818–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Crenn, P., Rakotoanbinina, B., Raynaud, J.J., Thuillier, F., Messing, B., Melchior, J.C. (2004) Hyperphagia contributes to the normal body composition and protein-energy balance in HIV-infected asymptomatic men. J Nutr 134, 2301–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Kotler, D.P. (2005) HIV infection and the gastrointestinal tract. AIDS 19, 107–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Navas, E., Martín-Dávila, P., Moreno, L., Pintado, V., Casado, J.L., Fortún, J., Pérez-Elías, M.J., Gomez-Mampaso, E., Moreno, S. (2002) Paradoxical reactions of tuberculosis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome who are treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Arch Intern Med 162, 97–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. World Health Organization. (2003) Nutrient requirements for people living with HIV/AIDS. Geneva, Switzerland. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/Contentnutrientrequirements.pdf)

  60. Hadigan, C. (2008) In: Nutrition in Pediatrics, 4th Edition. Duggan C, Watkins J, Walker A. (eds.). BC Decker Inc Hamilton, Ontario.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Titanji, K, De Milito, A, Cagigi, A, Thorstensson, R, Grützmeier, S, Atlas, A, Hejdeman, B, Kroon, FP, Lopalco, L, Nilsson, A, Chiodi, F. (2006) Loss of memory B cells impairs maintenance of long-term serologic memory during HIV-1 infection Blood 108, 1580–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. World Health Organization. (1999) WHO Management of Severe Malnutrition: A manual for Physicians and other Senior Health Workers WHO Geneva Switzerland. (Accessed at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/a57361.pdf)

  63. van Lettow, M., Fawzi, W.W., Semba, R.D. (2003) Triple trouble: the role of malnutrition in tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus co-infection. Nutr Rev 61, 81–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Swaminathan, S., Padmapriyadarsini, C., Sukumar, B., Iliayas, S., Kumar, S.R., Triveni, C., Gomathy, P., Thomas, B., Mathew, M., Narayanan, P.R. (2008) Nutritional status of persons with HIV infection, persons with HIV infection and tuberculosis, and HIV-negative individuals from southern India. Clin Infect Dis 46, 946–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Lee, L.M., Lobato, M.N., Buskin, S.E., Morse, A., Costa, O.S. (2006) Low adherence to guidelines for preventing TB among persons with newly diagnosed HIV infection, United States. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 10, 209–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Modjarrad, K., Chamot, E., Vermund, S.H. (2008) Impact of small reductions in plasma HIV RNA levels on the risk of heterosexual transmission and disease progression. AIDS 22, 2179–85.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Wolday, D., Mayaan, S., Mariam, Z.G., Berhe, N., Seboxa, T., Britton, S., Galai, N., Landay, A., Bentwich, Z. (2002) Treatment of intestinal worms is associated with decreased HIV plasma viral load. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 31, 56–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Hughes, W.T., Price, R.A., Sisko, F., Havron, W.S., Kafatos, A.G., Schonland, M., Smythe, P.M. (1974) Protein-Calorie malnutrition: a host determinant for Pneumocystis carinii infection. Am J Dis Child 128, 44–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2006) Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic. Geneva, Switzerland. (Accessed at http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2006/default.asp)

  70. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2004) Facing the Future Together Report of the United Nations Secretary-General’s Task Force on Women, Girls and HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa. (Accessed at http://womenandaids.unaids.org/regional/docs/Report20of20SGs20Task20Force.pdf)

  71. World Health Organization (2008) Scale Up Of HIV-Related Prevention, Diagnosis, Care And Treatment For Infants And Children: A Programming Framework. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/hiv/paediatric/Paedsprogrammingframework2008.pdf)

  72. Villamor, E., Misegades, L., Fataki, M.R., Mbise, R.L., Fawzi, W.W. (2005) Child mortality in relation to HIV infection, nutritional status, and socio-economic background. Internat Jo Epidemiol 34, 61–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Bailey, R.C., Kamenga, M.C., Nsuami, M.J., Nieburg, P., St Louis, M.E. (1999) Growth of children according to maternal and child HIV, immunological and disease characteristics: a prospective cohort study in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Internat Jo Epidemiol 28, 532–40.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Orne-Gliemann, J., Becquet, R., Ekouevi, D.K., Leroy, V., Perez, F., Dabis, F. (2008)Children and HIV/AIDS: from research to policy and action in resource-limited settings. AIDS 22, 797–805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. World Health Organization (2008) Technical Reference Group Pediatric HIV CARE ART Guideline Review Report. Geneva, Switzerland. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/meetingreports/artmeetingapril2008/en/index.html

  76. Coutsoudis, A., Pillay, K., Spooner, E., Kuhn, L., Coovadia, H.M. (1999) Influence of infant-feeding patterns on early mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Durban, South Africa: a prospective cohort study. South African Vitamin A Study Group. Lancet 354, 471–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Doherty, T., Chopra, M., Jackson, D., Goga, A., Colvin, M, Persson, L.A. (2007) Effectiveness of the WHO/UNICEF guidelines on infant feeding for HIV-positive women: results from a prospective cohort study in South Africa. AIDS 21, 1791–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Thior, I., Lockman, S., Smeaton, L.M., Shapiro, R.L., Wester, C., Heymann, S.J., Gilbert, P.B., Stevens, L., Peter, T., Kim, S., van Widenfelt, E., Moffat, C., Ndase, P., Arimi, P., Kebaabetswe, P., Mazonde, P., Makhema, J., McIntosh, K., Novitsky, V., Lee, T.H., Marlink, R., Lagakos, S., Essex, M., Mashi Study Team. (2006) Breastfeeding Plus Infant Zidovudine Prophylaxis for 6 Months versus Formula Feeding Plus Infant Zidovudine for 1 Month to Reduce Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission in Botswana. JAMA 296, 794–805.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Vallenas, C., Henderson, P., Kankasa, C., Bahl, R. (2006). HIV and Infant Feeding Guidelines and Tools: Toward Global Utilization. (Accessed at http://www.globalhealth.org/images/pdf/conf2006/presentations/a4vallenas.pdf)

  80. Leshabari, S.C., Blystad, A., de Paoli, M., Moland, K.M. (2007) HIV and infant feeding counselling: challenges faced by nurse-counsellors in northern Tanzania. Hum Resour Health 5, 18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Buskens, I., Jaffe, A., Mkhatshwa, H. (2007). 0nfant feeding practices: Realities and mindsets of mothers in southern Africa. AIDS Care October; 19(9), 1101–1109

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Matovu, A., Kirunda, B., Rugamba-Kabagambe, G., Tumwesigye, N.M., Nuwaha, F. (2008) Factors influencing adherence to exclusive breast feeding among HIV positive mothers in Kabarole district, Uganda, East Afr Med J 85, 162–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Bii, S.C., Otieno-Nyunya, B., Siika, A., Rotich, J.K. (2008) Infant feeding practices among HIV-infected women receiving prevention of mother-to-child transmission services at Kitale District Hospital, Kenya. East Afr Med J 85, 156–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Omwega, A.M., Oguta, T.J., Sehmi, J.K. (2006) Maternal knowledge on mother-to-child transmission of HIV and breastmilk alternatives for HIV positive mothers in Homa Bay District Hospital, Kenya. East Afr Med J 83, 610–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Coovadia, H.M., Bland, R.M. (2007) Preserving breastfeeding practice through the HIV pandemic. Trop Med IntHealth 12, 1116–33.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Adejuyigbe, E., Orji, E., Onayade, A., Makinde, N., Anyabolu, H. (2008) Infant feeding intentions and practices of HIV-positive mothers in southwestern Nigeria. J Hum Lact 24, 303–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Matovu, A., Kirunda, B., Rugamba-Kabagambe, G., Tumwesigye, N.M., Nuwaha, F. (2008) Factors influencing adherence to exclusive breast feeding among HIV positive mothers in Kabarole district, Uganda. East Afr Med J 85, 162–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Ogundele, M.O., Coulter, J.B.S. (2003) HIV transmission through breastfeeding: problems and prevention. Ann of Trop Paed 23, 91–106.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Hendricks, M., Beardsley, J., Bourne, L., Mzamo, B., Golden, B. (2007) Are opportunities for vitamin A supplementation being utilised at primary health-care clinics in the Western Cape Province of South Africa? Public Health Nutr 10, 1082–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Suksomboon, N., Poolsup, N., Ket-aim, S. (2007) Systematic review of the efficacy of antiretroviral therapies for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. J Clin Pharm Ther 32, 293–311.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Taha, T.E., Kumwenda, N., Hoover, D.R., Fiscus, S.A., Kafulafula, G., Nkhoma, C., Nour, S., Chen, S., Liomba, G., Miotti, P.G., Broadhead, R.L. (2004) Nevirapine and Zidovudine at Birth to Reduce Perinatal Transmission of HIV in an African Setting. JAMA 292, 202–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Stringer, E.M., Sinkala, M., Stringer, J.S., Mzyece, E., Makuka, I., Goldenberg, R.L., Kwape, P., Chilufya, M., Vermund, S.H. (2003) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Africa: successes and challenges in scaling-up a nevirapine-based program in Lusaka, Zambia. AIDS 17, 1377–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Fowler, M.G., Lampe, M.A., Jamieson, D.J., Kourtis, A.P., Rogers, M.F. (2007) Reducing the risk of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus transmission: past successes, current progress and challenges, and future directions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197, S3–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Palombi, L., Marazzib, M.C., Voetberg, A., Magid, N.A. (2007) Treatment acceleration program and the experience of the DREAM program in prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. AIDS 21, S65–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Carbonnel, F., Maslo, C., Beaugerie, L., Carrat, F., Wirbel, E., Aussel, C., Gobert, J.G., Girard, P.M., Gendre, J.P., Cosnes, J., Rozenbaum, W. (1998) Effect of indinavir on HIV-related wasting. AIDS 12, 1777–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Verweel, G., van Rossum, A.M., Hartwig, N.G., Wolfs, T.F., Scherpbier, H.J., de Groot, R. (2002) Treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children is associated with a sustained effect on growth. Pediatrics 109, E25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Shikuma, C.M., Zackin, R., Sattler, F., Mildvan, D., Nyangweso, P., Alston, B., Evans, S., Mulligan, K., AIDS Clinical Trial Group 892 Team. (2004) Changes in weight and lean body mass during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 39, 1223–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Grinspoon, S., Carr A. (2005) Cardiovascular risk and body-fat abnormalities in HIV-infected adults. N Engl J Med 352, 48–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Hadigan, C., Meigs, J.B., Wilson, P.W., D’Agostino, R.B., Davis, B., Basgoz, N., Sax, P.E., Grinspoon, S. (2003) Prediction of coronary heart disease risk in HIV-infected patients with fat redistribution. Clin Infect Dis 36, 909–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Sabin, C.A., Worm, S.W., Weber, R., Reiss, P., El-Sadr, W., Dabis, F., De Wit, S., Law, M., D‗Arminio Monforte, A., Friis-Møller, N., Kirk, O., Pradier, C., Weller, I., Phillips, A.N., Lundgren, J.D. (2008) Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients enrolled in the D:A:D study: a multi-cohort collaboration. Lancet 371, 1417–26. Erratum in: Lancet (2008) 372, 292.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. DAD Study Group. (2008) Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. Strategies for Management of Anti-Retroviral Therapy/INSIGHT. AIDS 22, F17–24.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Bartlett, J.G. (2008) Considerations prior to initiating antiretroviral therapy. http://www.utdol.com, (Accessed at http://www.utdolcom 13 December 2008)

  103. FANTA (2008). FANTA-supported Materials on HIV, Food and Nutrition (Accessed at http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/FANTAHIVpublist.pdf)

  104. Schwenk, A., Bürger, B., Ollenschläger, G., Stützer, H., Wessel, D., Diehl, V., Schrappe, M. (1994) Evaluation of nutritional counselling in HIV-associated malnutrition. Clin Nutr 13, 212–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Berneis, K., Battegay, M., Bassetti, S., Nuesch, R., Leisibach, A., Bilz, S., Keller, U. (2000) Nutritional supplements combined with dietary counselling diminish whole body protein catabolism in HIV-infected patients. Eur J Clin Invest 30, 87–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Schwenk, A., Steuck, H., Kremer, G. (1999) Oral supplements as adjunctive treatment to nutritional counseling in malnourished HIV-infected patients: randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr 18, 371–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. van Niekerk, C., Smego, R.A., Sanne, I. (2000) Effect of nutritional education and dietary counseling on body weight in HIV-seropositive South Africans not receiving antiretroviral therapy. J Hum Nutr Diet 13, 407–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Chlebowski, R.T., Grosvenor, M., Lillington, L., Sayre, J., Beall, G. (1995) Dietary intake and counseling, weight maintenance, and the course of HIV infection. J Am Diet Assoc 94, 428–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. de Luis Roman, D.A., Bachiller, P. et al. (2001) Nutritional treatment for acquired immunodeficiency virus infection using an enterotropic peptide-based formula enriched with n-3 fatty acids: a randomized prospective trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 55, 1048–52

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Irlam, J.H., Visser, M.E., Rollins, N., Siegfried, N. (2005) Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4, CD003650.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Villamor, E., Mbise R., Spiegelman, D., Ndossi G., Fawzi W.W. (2002) Vitamin A supplements ameliorate the adverse effect of HIV-1, malaria, and diarrheal infections on child growth. Pediatrics 109, E6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Kaiser, J.D., Campa, A.M., Ondercin, J.P., Leoung, G.S., Pless, R.F., Baum, M.K. (2006) Micronutrient supplementation increases CD4 count in HIV-infected individuals on highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 42, 523–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. de Luis, D.A., Bachiller, P., Aller, R., de Luis, J., Izaola, O., Terroba, M.C., Cuellar, L., González Sagrado, M. (2002) Relation among micronutrient intakes with CD4 count in HIV-infected patients. Nutr Hosp 17, 285–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Mehta, S., Fawzi, W. (2007) Effects of vitamins, including vitamin A, on HIV/AIDS patients. Vitam Horm 75, 355–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Wiysonge, C.S.U., Shey, M., Kongnyuy, E.J., Sterne, J.A.C., Brocklehurst, P. (2005) Vitamin A supplementation for reducing the risk of mother to-child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4, CD003651.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. (2008) Tables of DRI Values. (Accessed 24 Dec 08 http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/54/391/Summary Listing.pdf)

  117. Woods, M.N., Spiegelman, D., Knox, T.A., Forrester, J.E., Connors, J.L., Skinner, S.C., Silva, M., Kim, J.H., Gorbach, S.L. (2002) Nutrient intake and body weight in a large HIV cohort that includes women and minorities. J Am Diet Assoc 102, 203–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Gibert, C.L., Wheeler, D.A., Collins, G., Madans, M., Muurahainen, N., Raghavan, S.S., Bartsch, G. (1999) Randomized, controlled trial of caloric supplements in HIV infection. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 22, 253–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Selberg, O., Süttmann, U., Melzer, A., Deicher, H., Müller, M.J., Henkel, E., McMillan, D.C. (1995) Effect of increased protein intake and nutritional status on whole-body protein metabolism of AIDS patients with weight loss. Metabolism 44, 1159–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Mahlungulu, S., Grobler L.A., Visser M.E., Volmink J. (2008) Nutritional Interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality in people with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4, CD004536.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Hoh, R., Pelfini, A., Neese, R.A., Chan, M., Cello, J.P., Cope, F.O., Abbruzese, B.C., Richards, E.W., Courtney, K., Hellerstein, M.K. (1998) De novo lipogenesis predicts short-term body-composition response by bioelectrical impedance analysis to oral nutritional supplements in HIV-associated wasting. Am J Clin Nutr 68, 154–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. de Luis Roman, D.A., Bachiller, P., Izaola, O., Romero, E., Martin, J., Arranz, M., Eiros Bouza, J.M., Aller, R. (2001) Nutritional treatment for acquired immunodeficiency virus infection using an enterotropic peptide-based formula enriched with n-3 fatty acids: a randomized prospective trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 55, 1048–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Stack, J.A., Bell, S.J., Burke, P.A., Forse, R.A. (1996) High-energy, high-protein, oral, liquid, nutrition supplementation in patients with HIV infection: effect on weight status in relation to incidence of secondary infection. J Am Diet Assoc 96, 337–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Pichard, C., Sudre, P., Karsegard, V., Yerly, S., Slosman, D.O., Delley, V., Perrin, L., Hirschel, B. (1998) A randomized double-blind controlled study of 6 months of oral nutritional supplementation with arginine and omega-3 fatty acids in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 12, 53–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Clark, R.H., Feleke, G., Din, M., Yasmin, T., Singh, G., Khan, F.A., Rathmacher, J.A. (2000) Nutritional treatment for acquired immunodeficiency virus-associated wasting using ß-hydroxy ß-methlbutyrate, glutamine, and arginine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 24, 133–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Shabert, J.K., Winslow, C., Lacey, J.M., Wilmore, D.W. (1999) Glutamine-antioxidant supplementation increases body cell mass in AIDS patients with weight loss: a randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Nutrition 15, 860–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Kosmiski, L.A., Bessesen, D.H., Stotz, S.A., Koeppe, J.R., Horton, T.J. (2007) Short-term overfeeding increases resting energy expenditure in patients with HIV lipodystrophy. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 1009–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Paton, N.I., Ng, Y.M., Chee, C.B., Persaud, C., Jackson, A.A. (2003) Effects of tuberculosis and HIV infection on whole-body protein metabolism during feeding, measured by the [15 N]glycine method. Am J Clin Nutr 78, 319–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Prod'homme, M., Rochon, C., Balage, M., Laurichesse, H, Tauveron, I., Champredon, C., Thieblot, P., Beytout, J., Grizard, J. (2006) Whole body leucine flux in HIV-infected patients treated with or without protease inhibitors. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 290, E685–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Ye, X., Al-Babili, S., Klöti, A., Zhang, J., Lucca, P., Beyer, P., Potrykus, I. (2000) Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science 287, 303–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. O’Kennedy, M.M., Burger, J.T., Botha, F.C. (2006) Harnessing sorghum and millet biotechnology for food and health. J Cereal Sci 44, 224–35.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Lucca, P., Hurrell, R., Potrykus, I. (2002) Fighting iron deficiency anemia with iron-rich rice. J Am Coll Nutr 21, 184S–90S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Mamlin, J., Kimaiyo, S., Lewis, S., Tadayo, H., Jerop, F.K., Gichunge, C., Petersen, T., Yih, Y., Braitstein, P., Einterz, R. (2008) Integrating Nutrition Support for Food-Insecure Patients and their Dependents Into an HIV Care and Treatment Program in Western Kenya. Am J Public Health 2009; 99(2): 215–21.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Hardin, D.S., LeBlanc, A., Young, D., Johnson, P. (1999) Increased leucine turnover and insulin resistance in men with advanced HIV infection. J Invest Med 47, 405–13.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Yarasheski, K.E., Zachwieja, J.J., Gischler, J., Crowley, J., Horgan, M.M., Powderly, W.G. (1998) Increased plasma gln and Leu Ra and inappropriately low muscle protein synthesis rate in AIDS wasting. Am J Physiol 275, E577–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Mills, E.W., Seetharaman, K., Maretzki, A.N. (2007) A nutribusiness strategy for processing and marketing animal-source foods for children. J Nutr 137, 1115–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Neumann, C.G. (2007) Symposium: food-based approaches to combating micronutrient deficiencies in children of developing countries. Background. J Nutr 137, 1091–2

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Glew, R.S., Vanderjagt, D. (2006) Coping strategies and nutritional health in rural Niger: recommendations for consumption of wild plant foods in the Sahel. Int J Food Sci Nutr 57, 314–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Ji, K.M., Zhan, Z.K., Chen, J.J., Liu, Z.G. (2008) Anaphylactic shock caused by silkworm pupa consumption in China. Allergy 63, 1407–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Abdale, F., Kraak, V. (1995) Community-based nutrition support for people living with HIV and AIDS: A technical assistance manual. New York: God’s Love We Deliver, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Byron, E., Gillespie, S., Nangami, M. (2008) Integrating nutrition security with treatment of people living with HIV: lessons from Kenya. Food Nutr Bull 29, 87–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Cantrell, R.A., Sinkala, M., Megazinni, K., Lawson-Marriott, S., Washington, S., Chi, B.H., Tambatamba-Chapula, B., Levy, J., Stringer, E.M., Mulenga, L., Stringer, J.S. (2008) A pilot study of food supplementation to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy among food-insecure adults in Lusaka, Zambia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 49, 190–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Patel, M.P., Sandige, H.L., Ndekha, M.J., Briend, A., Ashorn, P., Manary, M.J. (2005) Supplemental feeding with ready-to-use therapeutic food in Malawian children at risk of malnutrition. Health Popul Nutr 23, 351–7.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Ndekha, M.J., Manary, M.J., Ashorn, P., Briend, A. (2005) Home-based therapy with ready-to-use therapeutic food is of benefit to malnourished, HIV-infected Malawian children. Acta Pediatrica 94, 222–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Amadi, B., Mwiya, M., Chomba, E., Thomson, M., Chintu, C., Kelly, P., Walker-Smith, J. (2005) Improved nutritional recovery on an elemental diet in Zambian children with persistent diarrhoea and malnutrition. J Trop Pediatr 51, 5–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Bowie, C, Kalilani, L, Marsh, R, Misiri, H, Cleary, P, Bowie, C. (2005) An assessment of food supplementation to chronically sick patients receiving home based care in Bangwe, Malawi: a descriptive study. Nutr J 21, 12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Food and Agriculture Organization. (2008) Household food security and community nutrition. (Accessed at http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/householden.stm)

  148. Tony Castleman, US Agency for International Development, Personal communication, September 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Lin, C.A., Manary, M.J., Maleta, K., Briend, A., Ashorn, P. (2008) An energy-dense complementary food is associated with a modest increase in weight gain when compared with a fortified porridge in Malawian children aged 6-18 months. J Nutr 138, 593–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Linneman, Z., Matilsky, D., Ndekha, M., Maleta, K., Manary, M.J. (2007) A large-scale operational study of home-based therapy with ready-to-use therapeutic food in childhood malnutrition in Malawi. Matern Child Nutr 3, 206–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Ciliberto, M.A., Manary, M.J., Ndekha, M.J., Briend, A., Ashorn, P. (2006) Home-based therapy for oedematous malnutrition with ready-to-use therapeutic food. Acta Pediatr 95, 1012–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. [No authors listed]. (2007) Ready-to-use therapeutic foods for malnutrition. Lancet 369, 164.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Sadler, K., Myatt, M., Feleke, T., Collins, S. (2007) A comparison of the programme coverage of two therapeutic feeding interventions implemented in neighbouring districts of Malawi. Public Health Nutr 10, 907–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Bounous, G., Baruchel, S., Falutz, J., Gold, P. (1993) Whey proteins as a food supplement in HIV-seropositive individuals. Clin Invest Med 16, 204–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Hoppe, C., Andersen, G., Jacobsen, S., Mølgaard, C., Friis, H., Sangild, P., Michaelsen, K.F. (2008) The Use of Whey or Skimmed Milk Powder in Fortified Blended Foods for Vulnerable Groups. J Nutr 138, 145S–61S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Tinmouth, J., Kandel, G., Tomlinson, G., Walmsley, S., Steinhart, A.H., Glazier, R. (2006) The effect of dairy product ingestion on human immunodeficiency virus-related diarrhea in a sample of predominantly gay men: a randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover trial. Arch Intern Med 166, 1178–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Tony Castleman, US Agency for International Development, Personal communication, September 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Mwamburi, D.M., Gerrior, J., Wilson, I.B., Chang, H., Scully, E., Saboori, S., Miller, L., Forfia, J., Albrecht, M., Wanke, C.A. (2004) Combination megestrol acetate, oxandrolone, and dietary advice restores weight in human immunodeficiency virus. Nutr Clin Practice 19, 395–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  159. Grunfeld, C., Kotler, D.P., Dobs, A., Glesby, M., Bhasin, S. (2006) Oxandrolone in the treatment of HIV-associated weight loss in men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 41, 304–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Winson, S.K. (2001) Management of HIV-associated diarrhea and wasting. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care 12, 55–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Sweeney, L.L., Brennan, A.M., Mantzoros, C.S. (2007) The role of adipokines in relation to HIV lipodystrophy. AIDS 21, 895–904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Chopra, M., Darton-Hill, l. (2006) Responding to the crisis in sub-Saharan Africa: the role of nutrition. Pub Health Nut 9, 544–50.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Brewster, D.R. (2006) Review of malnutrition treatment evidence in children. J Pediatr Child Health 42, 568–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  164. Semba, R.D., Graham, N.M.H., Caiaffa, W.T., Margolick, J.B., Clement, L., Vlahov, D. (1993) Increased mortality associated with vitamin A deficiency during HIV type 1 infection. Arch Intern Med 153, 2149–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. van den Broek, N.R., White, S.A., Flowers, C., Cook, J.D., Letsky, E.A., Tanumihardjo, S.A., Mhango, C., Molyneux, M., Neilson, J.P. (2006) Randomised trial of vitamin A supplementation in pregnant women in rural Malawi found to be anaemic on screening by HemoCue. BJOG 113, 569–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Humphrey, J.H., Iliff, P.J., Marinda, E.T., Mutasa, K., Moulton, L.H., Chidawanyika, H., Ward, B.J., Nathoo, K.J., Malaba, L.C., Zijenah, L.S., Zvandasara, P., Ntozini, R., Mzengeza, F., Mahomva, A.I., Ruff, A.J., Mbizvo, M.T., Zunguza, C.D., ZVITAMBO Study Group. (2006) Effects of a single large dose of vitamin A, given during the postpartum period to HIV-positive women and their infants, on child HIV infection, infection-free survival, and mortality. J Infect Dis 193, 860–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Fawzi, W. (2006) The Benefits and Concerns Related to Vitamin A Supplementation. J Infect Dis 193, 756–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Rosales, F.J. (2002) Vitamin a supplementation of vitamin a deficient measles patients lowers the risk of measles-related pneumonia in Zambian children. J Nutr 132, 3700–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Long, K.Z., Montoya, Y., Hertzmark, E., Santos, J.I., Rosado, J.L. (2006) A double-blind, randomized, clinical trial of the effect of vitamin A and zinc supplementation on diarrheal disease and respiratory tract infections in children in Mexico City, Mexico. Am J Clin Nutr 83, 693–700.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Mahalanabis, D. (2004) Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of the efficacy of treatment with zinc or vitamin A in infants and young children with severe acute lower respiratory infection. Am J Clin Nutr 79, 430–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Posse, M., Meheus, F., van Asten, H., van der Ven, A., Baltussen, R. (2008) Barriers to access to antiretroviral treatment in developing countries: a review. Trop Med Int Health 13, 904–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Corneli, A.L., Piwoz, E.G., Bentley, M.E., Moses, A., Nkhoma, J.R., Tohill, B.C., Adair, L., Mtimuni, B., Ahmed, Y., Duerr, A., Kazembe, P., van der Horst, C., UNC Project BAN Study Team. (2007) Involving communities in the design of clinical trial protocols: the BAN Study in Lilongwe, Malawi. Contemp Clin Trials 28, 59–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Maxwell, C., Aggleton, P., Warwick, I. (2008) Involving HIV-positive people in policy and service development: recent experiences in England. AIDS Care 20, 72–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Greco, D.B., Simao, M. (2007) Brazilian policy of universal access to AIDS treatment: sustainability challenges and perspectives. AIDS 21, S37–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Szekeres, G. (2008) The next 5 years of global HIV/AIDS policy: critical gaps and strategies for effective responses. AIDS 22, S9–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. McInnes, K., Landon, B.E., Malitz, F.E., Wilson, I.B., Marsden, P.V., Fleishman, J.A., Gustafson, D.H., Cleary, P.D. (2004) Differences in patient and clinic characteristics at CARE Act funded versus non-CARE Act funded HIV clinics. AIDS Care 16, 851–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Ooms, G. (2008) Shifting paradigms: how the fight for “universal access to AIDS treatment and prevention” supports achieving “comprehensive primary health care for all”. Global Health 4, 11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Harvard Medical School, Children’s Hospital Boston, Hunnewell Ground, 02111, Boston, MA, USA

    Kevin A. Sztam MD, MPH

  2. Division of Nutrition, School of Health Professions, College of Health and Human Sciences, Georgia State University, 30302-3995, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Murugi Ndirangu PHD

Authors
  1. Kevin A. Sztam MD, MPH
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Murugi Ndirangu PHD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kevin A. Sztam MD, MPH .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. New Products Research, GlaxoSmithKline Consumer Healthcare, Littleton Road 1500 , Parsippany, 07054, U.S.A.

    Adrianne Bendich

  2. Inst. Human Nutrition, Columbia University, West 168th St. 630 , New York, 10032, U.S.A.

    Richard J. Deckelbaum

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sztam, K.A., Ndirangu, M. (2010). HIV and Nutrition. In: Bendich, A., Deckelbaum, R. (eds) Preventive Nutrition. Nutrition and Health. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-542-2_24

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-542-2_24

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-60327-541-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-60327-542-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation