Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Natural History of Obesity

Differential Diagnosis, Clinical Types, and Age-Related Changes

  • Chapter
The Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity

  • 1564 Accesses

Abstract

The previous three chapters defined overweight and provided a graded classification system; described the mechanisms by which the body regulates body fat stores and how these mechanisms can fail from an epidemiological, biological, or hedonic point of view; and enumerated the health risks that can result from carrying too much body fat, particularly fat that is located in visceral fat cells that drain their products of secretion into the hepatic-portal system.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ailhaud, G. and Guesnet, P. (2004). Fatty acid composition of fats is an early determinant of childhood obesity: a short review and an opinion. Obes Rev 5(1):21–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, D.B., et al. (1999). Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: a comprehensive research synthesis. Am J Psychiatry 156(11):1686–1696.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, K.C., et al. (2005). Neuroendocrine profiles associated with energy intake, sleep, and stress in the night eating syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(11):6214–6217.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, K.C., et al. (2005). Binge eating disorder and night eating syndrome: a comparative study of disordered eating. J Consult Clin Psychol 73(6):1107–1115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aloia, J.F., et al. (1995). The influence of menopause and hormonal replacement therapy on body cell mass and body fat mass. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172(3):896–900.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Astrup, A., et al. (2000). The role of dietary fat in body fatness: evidence from a preliminary meta-analysis of ad libitum low-fat dietary intervention studies. Br J Nutr 83(Suppl 1):S25–S32.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, D.J., et al. (1993). Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 36(1):62–67.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann, K.E., et al. (2003). Early determinants of childhood overweight and adiposity in a birth cohort study: role of breast-feeding. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27(2):162–172.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blundell, J. E. and MacDiarmid, J. I. (1997). Fat as a risk factor for overconsumption: satiation, satiety, and patterns of eating. J Am Diet Assoc 97(7 Suppl):S63–S69.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolland, M.J., et al. (2005). Association between primary hyperparathyroidism and increased body weight: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(3): 1525–1530.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchard, C., et al. (1990). The response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins. N Engl J Med 322(21): 1477–1482.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bray, G.A. (1976). The Obese Patient: Major Problems in Internal Medicine. Philadelphia: WB Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bray, G. A. and Gallagher, T. F., Jr. (1975). Manifestations of hypothalamic obesity in man: a comprehensive investigation of eight patients and a reveiw of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 54(4): 301–330.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bray, G. A. and Popkin, B. M. (1998). Dietary fat intake does affect obesity! Am J Clin Nutr 68(6): 1157–1173.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bray, G. A. and York, D. A. (1998). The MONA LISA hypothesis in the time of leptin. Recent Prog Horm Res 53:95–117; discussion 117–118.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, K., et al. (1998). A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature 392(6674):398–401.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crespo, C.J., et al. (2001). Television watching, energy intake, and obesity in US children: results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 155(3): 360–365.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, D.E., et al. (2002). Elevated plasma ghrelin levels in Prader Willi syndrome. Nat Med 8(7): 643–644.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeLany, J. P., et al. (2006). Energy expenditure and substrate oxidation predict changes in body fat in children. Am J Clin Nutr 84(4):862–870.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farooqi, I. S., Yeo, G. S., Keogh, J. M., et al. (2000). Dominant and recessive inheritance of morbid obesity associated with melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency. J Clin invest 106:271–279.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqi, I.S., et al. (2001). Partial leptin deficiency and human adiposity. Nature 414(6859):34–35.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqi, I.S., et al. (2002). Beneficial effects of leptin on obesity, T cell hyporesponsiveness, and neuroendocrine/metabolic dysfunction of human congenital leptin deficiency. J Clin Invest 110(8): 1093–1103.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqi, I. S., Wangensteen, T., Collins, S., et al. (2007). Clinical and molecular genetic spectrum of congenital deficiency of the leptin recetor. N Engl J Med 356:237–247.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Findling, J.W., et al. (2006). Cushing’s syndrome: important issues in diagnosis and management. J Clin Endocrinal Metab 91(10):3746–3753.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal, K.M., et al. (1995). The influence of smoking cessation on the prevalence of overweight in the United States. N Engl J Med 333(18): 1165–1170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gambineri, A., et al. (2004). Effect of flutamide and metformin administered alone or in combination in dieting obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 60(2):241–249.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillman, M.W., et al. (2001). Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. JAMA 285(19):2461–2467.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grace, C., et al. (2001). The effect of Bardet-Biedl syndrome in the components on energy balance. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25(Suppl 2):S42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, K.A., et al. (2005). Effect of olanzapine on body composition and energy expenditure in adults with first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 162(1):118–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, J.S., et al. (1989). The cardinal manifestations of Bardet-Biedl syndrome, a form of LaurenceMoon-Biedl syndrome. N Engl J Med 321(15):1002–1009.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gunay-Aygun, M., et al. (1997). Prader-Willi and other syndromes associated with obesity and mental retardation. Behav Genet 27(4):307–324.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haarbo, J. and Christiansen, C. (1992). Treatment-induced cyclic variations in serum lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins after 2 years of combined hormone replacement therapy: exaggerated cyclic variations in smokers. Obstet Gynecol 80(4):639–644.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hediger, M.L., et al. (2001). Association between infant breastfeeding and overweight in young children. JAMA 285(19):2453–2460.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hinney, A., et al. (1999). Several mutations in the melanocortin-4 receptor gene including a nonsense and a frameshift mutation associated with dominantly inherited obesity in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84(4):1483–1486.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, R.S., et al. (1997). Obesity and impaired prohormone processing associated with mutations in the human prohormone convertase 1 gene. Nat Genet 16(3):303–306.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffery, R.W., et al. (1989). The relationship between social status and body mass index in the Minnesota Heart Health Program. Int J Obes 13(1):59–67.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, D.J., et al. (1989). Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency. N Engl J Med 321(14):929–934.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalra, S. P. and Kalra, P. S. (2005). Gene-transfer technology: a preventive neurotherapy to curb obesity, ameliorate metabolic syndrome and extend life expectancy. Trends Pharmacol Sci 26(10):488–495.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanumakala, S., et al. (2005). Fasting ghrelin levels are not elevated in children with hypothalamic obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(5):2691–2695.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katsanis, N., et al. (2000). Mutations in MKKS cause obesity, retinal dystrophy and renal malformations associated with Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Nat Genet 26(1):67–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J.C., et al. (2004). The Bardet-Biedl protein BBS4 targets cargo to the pericentriolar region and is required for microtubule anchoring and cell cycle progression. Nat Genet 36(5):462–470.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, B.M., et al. (1985). Nonirritative lesions of VMI effects on plasma insulin, obesity and hyperreactivity. Am J Physiol 248(6 pt 1):E669–E675.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, B.M. (2006). The rise, fall, and resurrection of the ventromedial hypothalamus in the regulation of feeding behavior and body weight. Physiol Behav 54:2664–2670.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kinon, B.J., et al. (2001). Long-term olanzepine treatment: weight change and weight relatedhealth factors in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 62(2):92–100.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kromhout, D. (1983). Changes in energy and macronutrients in 871 middle-aged men during 10 years of follow-up (the Zutphen study). Am J Clin Nutr 37(2):287–294.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kromhout, D., et al. (2001). Physical activity and dietary fiber determine population body fat levels: the Seven Countries Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25(3):301–306.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krude, H., et al. (1998). Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet 19(2):155–157.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lasker, R.D. (1993). The diabetes control and complications trial. Implications for policy and practice. N Engl J Med 329(14):1035–1036.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, O.J., et al. (1995). The association of body weight, dietary intake, and energy expenditure with dietary restraint and disinhibition. Obes Res 3(2):153–161.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levitsky, D.A., et al. (2005). Imprecise control of energy intake: absence of a reduction in food intake following overfeeding in young adults. Physiol Behav 84(5):669–675.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, J.A., et al. (2005). Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 353(12):1209–1223.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lonn, L., et al. (1996). Body composition and tissue distributions in growth hormone deficient adults before and after growth hormone treatment. Obes Res 4(1):45–54.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, D.S., et al. (2001). Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 357(9255):505–508.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren, J.D., et al. (2006). Prevalence of the night eating syndrome in a psychiatric population. Am J Psychiatry 163(1):156–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mamun, A.A., et al. (2005). Family and early life factors associated with changes in overweight status between ages 5 and 14 years: findings from the Mater University Study of Pregnancy and its outcomes. Int J Obes (Lond) 29(5):475–482.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDevitt, R.M., et al. (2001). De novo lipogenesis during controlled overfeeding with sucrose or glucose in lean and obese women. Am J Clin Nutr 74(6):737–746.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montague, C.T., et al. (1997). Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature 387(6636):903–908.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muller, H.L., et al. (2001). Obesity after childhood craniopharyngioma-German multicenter study on pre-operative risk factors and quality of life. Klin Padiatr 213(4):244–249.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Must, A., et al. (1992). Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N Engl J Med 327(19):1350–1355.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • N. A. (1988). Weight gain associated with intensive therapy in the diabetes control and complications trial. The DCCT Research Group. Diabetes Care 11(7):567–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • N. A. (1994). Weight cycling. National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. JAMA 272(15): 1196–1202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • N. A. (1996). Surgeon General’s report on physical activity and health. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 276(7):522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • N. A. (1998). Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet 352(9131):837–853.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nishizawa, T., et al. (1976). Some factors related to obesity in the Japanese sumo wrestler. Am J Clin Nutr 29(10):1167–1174.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Dea, D., et al. (1996). The importance of renal impairment in the natural history of Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Am J Kidney Dis 27(6):776–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obarzanek, E., et al. (1994). Energy intake and physical activity in relation to indexes of body fat: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 60(1): 15–22.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara, P., et al. (1998). Early and late weight gain following smoking cessation in the Lung Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 148(9):821–830.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orth, D.N. (1995). Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 332(12):791–803.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozata, M., et al. (1999). Human leptin deficiency caused by a missense mutation: multiple endocrine defects, decreased sympathetic tone, and immune system dysfunction indicate new targets for leptin action, greater central than peripheral resistance to the effects of leptin, and spontaneous correction of leptin-mediated defects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84(10):3686–3695.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palmert, M.R., et al. (2002). Screening for abnormal glucose tolerance in adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(3): 1017–1023.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Partonen, T. and Lonnqvist, J. (1998). Seasonal affective disorder. Lancet 352(9137): 1369–1374.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pasquet, P. and Apfelbaum, M. (1994). Recovery of initial body weight and composition after long-term massive overfeeding in men. Am J Clin Nutr 60(6):861–863.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prentice, A.M. and Jebb, S. A. (1995). Obesity in Britain: gluttony or sloth? BMJ 311(7002):437–439.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ravussin, E., et al. (1988). Reduced rate of energy expenditure as a risk factor for body-weight gain. N Engl J Med 318(8):467–472.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Redden, D.T. and Allison, D. B. (2004). The Quebec Overfeeding Study: a catalyst for new hypothesis generation. Obes Rev 5(1): 1–2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reubinoff, B.E., et al. (1995). Effects of low-dose estrogen oral contraceptives on weight, body composition, and fat distribution in young women. Fertil Steril 63(3):516–521.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ristow, M., et al. (1998). Obesity associated with a mutation in a genetic regulator of adipocyte differentiation. N Engl J Med 339(14):953–959.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, S.B., et al. (1998). Physiology of fat replacement and fat reduction: effects of dietary fat and fat substitutes on energy regulation. Nutr Rev 56(5 Pt 2):S29–S41; discussion S41-S49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, S.B., et al. (1988). Energy expenditure and intake in infants born to lean and overweight mothers. N Engl J Med 318(8):461–466.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodekamp, E., et al. (2005). Long-term impact of breast-feeding on body weight and glucose tolerance in children of diabetic mothers: role of the late neonatal period and early infancy. Diabetes Care 28(6):1457–1462.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, I. (2003). The influence of birthweight and intrauterine environment on adiposity and fat distribution in later life. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27(7):755–777.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, Y. (2000). Human overfeeding experiments: potentials and limitations in obesity research. Br J Nutr84(2):135–137.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D.E., et al. (1994). Longitudinal changes in adiposity associated with pregnancy. The CARDIA Study. Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. JAMA 271(22):1747–1751.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S.R., et al. (2005). Effect of pioglitazone on body composition and energy expenditure: a randomized controlled trial. Metabolism 54(1):24–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, E.E., et al. (2004). The human obesity gene map: the 2003 update. Obes Res 12(3):369–439.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasan, S., et al. (2004). Features of the metabolic syndrome after childhood craniopharyngioma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(1):81–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strobel, A., et al. (1998). A leptin missense mutation associated with hypogonadism and morbid obesity. Nat Genet 18(3):213–215.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stunkard, A. (2000). Two eating disorders: binge eating disorder and the night eating syndrome. Appetite 34(3):333–334.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stunkard, A.J. (1955). The night eating syndrome: a pattern of food intake among certain obese patients. Am J Med 19:78–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tappy, L. (2004). Metabolic consequences of overfeeding in humans. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 7(6):623–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teran-Garcia, M., et al. (2004). Effects of long-term overfeeding on plasma lipoprotein levels in identical twins. Atherosclerosis 173(2):277–283.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vaisse, C., et al. (1998). A frameshift mutation in human MC4R is associated with a dominant form of obesity. Nat Genet 20(2):113–114.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vasan, R.S., et al. (2005). Estimated risks for developing obesity in the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 143(7):473–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Kries, R., et al. (1999). Breast feeding and obesity: cross sectional study. BMJ 319(7203):147–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, R.C., et al. (1997). Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. N Engl J Med 337(13):869–873.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, D.A., et al. (1995). Association of body mass with dietary restraint and disinhibition. Appetite 25(1):31–41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, D.F., et al. (1994). A prospective study of childbearing and 10-year weight gain in US white women 25 to 45 years of age. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 18(8):561–569.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yanovski, S.Z. (1994). Binge eating disorder affects outcome of comprehensive very-low-calorie diet treatment. Obes Res 2:205–212.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yeo, G.S., et al. (1998). A frameshift mutation in MC4R associated with dominantly inherited human obesity. Nat Genet 20(2): 111–112.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu-Poth, S., et al. (1999). Effects of the National Cholesterol Education Program’s Step I and Step II dietary intervention programs on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 69(4):632–646.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

(2007). Natural History of Obesity. In: The Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-431-5_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation