Skip to main content

Can Childhood Obesity Be Prevented?

Preschool Nutrition and Obesity

  • Chapter
Preventive Nutrition

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health ((NH))

Abstract

Key Points

  • In the past three decades the prevalence of obesity among preschool children has doubled.

  • Obesity in children 3 yr of age and older is an important predictor of adult obesity.

  • Obesity in preschool children is associated with significant comorbidities as in older children and adolescents, especially dyslipidemia and elevated blood pressure.

  • The USDA Food Guide Pyramid for Preschool Children provides a useful general overview of a nutrient-balanced and energy-adequate diet for 2- to 6-yr-old.

  • Energy balance in preschool children is of critical importance in the primary prevention of obesity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Curhan GC, Willlett WC, Spiegelman D, et al. Birth weight and adult hypertension and obesity in women. Circulation 1996; 94:1310–1315.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. World Health Organization Technical Support Series No. 894. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Dietz WH, Gortmaker SL. Preventing obesity in children and adolescents. Annual Rev Public Health 2001; 22:337–353.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Williams CL. Can Childhood Obesity be Prevented? In: Bendich A, Deckelbaum RJ, eds. Primary and Secondary Preventive Nutrition. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2001, pp. 185–204.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Freedman DS, Srinivasan SR, Valdez RA, Williamson DF, Bernson GS. Secular increases in elative weight and adiposity among children over two decades: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 1997; 99:420–426.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. De Onis M, Blossner M. Prevalence and trends of overweight among pre-schoolchildren in developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72:1032–1039.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Wang G, Dietz WH. Economic burden of obesity in youths aged 6–17 years: 1979–1999. Pediatrics 2002; 109(5):e81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Goran MI. Metabolic precursors and effects of obesity in children: a decade of progress, 1990–1999. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73:158–171.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Kotani K. Nishida M, Yamashita S, et al. Two decades of annual medical examinations in Japanese obese children: do obese children grow into obese adults? Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1997; 21:912–921.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Pepe MS, Seidel KD, Dietz WH. Predicting obesity in young adults from childhood and parental obesity. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:869–873.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Must A. Jacques PF. Dallal GE, Bajema CJ, Dietz WH. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents: a follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N Engl J Med 1992; 327:1350–1355.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Deckelbaum RJ, Williams CL. Childhood obesity—health issues. Obesity Res 2002; 9:S239–S243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Williams CL, Gulli M, Deckelbaum RJ. Prevention and treatment of childhood obesity-an update. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 2001; 3:486–497.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Freedman DS, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 1999; 103:1175–1182.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Daniels SR, Standiford D, Khoury PR, Zeitler P. Increased incidence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus among adolescents. J Pediatr 1996; 128:608–615.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Couch SC, Cross AT, Kida K, Ross E, Plaza I, Shea S, Deckelbaum R. Rapid Westernization of children’s blood cholesterol in 3 countries: evidence for nutrient-gene interactions? Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72(Suppl):1266S–1274S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kida K, Ito T, Yang SW, Tahphaichitr V. Effects of Western Diet on Risk Factors of Chronic Disease in Asia. In: Bendich A, Deckelbaum RJ, eds. Preventive Nutrition: The Comprehensive Guide for Health Professionals, 2nd ed. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2001, pp. 435–446.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Knittle J. Adipose Tissue Development in Man. In: Faulkner F, Tanner JM, eds. Human Growth, Vol 2. Postnatal Growth. Plenum Press, New York, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Rosso P. Prenatal nutrition and fetal growth and development. Ped Ann 1981; 10:21–30.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Johnston F. Sex Differences in Fat Patterning in Children and Youth. In: Bouchard C, Johnston F, eds. Fat Distribution During Growth and Later Health Outcomes. Liss, New York, 1988, pp. 85–102.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Forbes C. Body Composition in Adolescence. In: Faulkner F, Tanner JM, eds. Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise. Vol 2. Plenum Press, New York, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Liebel R, Berry E, Hirsch J. Biochemistry and Development of Adipose Tissue in Man. In: Conn HL Jr, DeFelice EA, Kuo P, eds. Health and Obesity. Raven Press, New York, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Knittle J, Timmrs K, Ginsberg-Fellner F. The growth of adipose tissue in children and adolescents. J Clin Invest 1979; 63:239–246.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Doglio A, Amri E, Dani C, et al. Effects of Growth Hormone in the Differentiation Process of Preadipose Cells. In: Isaksson O, Binder C, Hall K, eds. Growth Hormone—Basic and Clinical Aspects. Elsiever Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Faust I, Miller WJ. Hyperplastic Growth of Adipose Tissue in Obesity. Raven Press, New York, 1983, pp. 41–51.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Hagar A, Sjostrom I, Arvidsson V. Adipose tissue cellularity in obese school girls before and ofter dietary treatment. Am J Clin Nutr 1978; 31:68–75.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Dewey KG, Lonnerdal B. Milk and nutrient intake of breast-fed infants from 1–6 months; relation to growth and fatness. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1983; 3:497–506.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Sveger T, Lindberg T, Weibull B, Olsson UL. Nutrition, overnutrition and obesity in the first year of life in Malmo, Sweden. Acta Pediatr Scand 1975;64(4):635–640.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Shapiro LR, Crawford PB, Clark MJ, Pearson DL, Raz J, Huenemann RL. Obesity prognosis: a longitudinal study of children from age 6 months to 9 years. Am J Public Health 1984; 74 (9):968–972.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Melbin T, Vuille JC. The Relative Importance of Rapid Weight Gain in Infancy as a Precursor of Childhood Obesity. In: Laron Z, Dickman Z, ed. The Adipose Child. Karger, Basel, 1976; W1PE 163H v.1 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Fomon S, Thomas L, Filer L, et al. Food consumption and growth of normal infants fed milk-based formulas. Acta Pediatr Scand 1971; 223:1–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Kramer MS. Do breast-feeding and delayed introduction of solid foods protect against subsequent obesity? J Pediatr 1981; 98(6):883–887.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Kramer MS, Barr RG, Leduc DG, Boisjoly C, Pless IB. Infant determinants of childhood weight and adiposity. J Pediatr 1985; 107(1):104–107.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Dine MS, Gartside PS, Glueck CJ, et al. Where do the heaviest children come from? A prospective study of white children from birth to 5 years of age. Pediatrucs 1979; 63:(1) 1–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Roberts, SB, Savage J, Coward WA, Chew B, Lucas A. Energy expenditure and energy intake in infants born to lean and overweight mothers. NEJM 1988; 318:461–466.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Griffiths M, Payne PR. Energy expenditure in small children of obese and non-obese parents. Nature 1976; 260:698–700.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Griffiths M, Payne PR, Stunkard AJ, Rivers JPW, Cox M. Metabolic rate and physical development in children at risk of obesity. Lancet 1990; 336:76–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Waterland RA, Berkowitz RI, Stunkard AJ, Stallings VA. Calibrated-orifice nipples for measurement of infant nutritive sucking. J Pediatr 1998; 132(3 Pt 1):523–526.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Mack RW, Johnston FE. The relationship between growth in infancy and growth in adolescence: report of a longitudinal study among urnban black adolescents. Hum Biol 1976; 48(4):493–501.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Garn S, Levelle M. Two decade follow-up of fatness in early childhood. Am J Dis Child 1985; 139(2):181–185.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Pepe MS, Seidel KD, Dietz WH. Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. NEJM 1997; 337:869–872.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Bellisle F, Sempe M, Guilloud-Bataille M, Patois E. Adiposity rebound in children: a simple indicator for predicting obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 39:129–135.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Klesges RC, Klesges LM, Eck LH, Shelton ML. A longitudinal analysis of accelerated weight gain in preschool children. Pediatrics 1995; 95:126–130.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Eck LH, Klesges RC, Hanson CL, Slawson D. Children at familial risk for obesity: an examination of dietary intake, physical activity and weight status. Int J Obes 1992; 16:71–78.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Robertson AM, Cullen KW, Baronowski J, Baranowski T, Hu S, deMoor C. Factors related to adiposity among three to seven year old children. (Personal communication, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Deheeger M, Rolland-Cachera M, Fontvieille A. Physical activity and body composition in 10 year old French children: linkages with nutritional intake? Int J Obes 1997; 21:372–379.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Klesges R. Parental influences in children’s eating behavior and relative weight. J Appl Behav Anal 1983; 16:3731–3718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Wiliams CL, Hayman LL, Daniels SR, Robinson TN, Steinberger J, Paridon S. Cardiovascular Health in Childhood. A statement for health professionals from the Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young (AHOY) of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Circulation 2002; 106:143–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. St Jeor ST, Perumean-Chaney S, Sigman-Grant M, Williams C, Foreyt J. Family-based interventions for the treatment of childhood obesity. J Am Dietet Assoc 2002; 102:640–644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. US Department of Agriculture. Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, 1994–96, 1998. (http://www.usda.gov). Accessed March 2, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  51. United States Department of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Service, Office of analysis and Evaluation. Early Childhood and Child Care Study: Nutritional Assessment of the CACFP, Vols. 1 & II: Final Report. US Govt. Printing Office, July 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Kennedy E, Meyers L, Layden W. The 1995 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: an overview. JADA 1996; 96(3):234–237.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  54. National Research Council Committee on Diet and Health. Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1989, pp. 670–672.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Head Start Bureau. Head Start Program Performance Standards (45-CRF-1304). US Dept of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, 1994. DHHS publ (ACF) 92-31131.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Food and Nutrition Services, US Department of Agriculture. A Planning Guide for Food Service in Child Care Centers. US Dept of Agriculture, Washington, DC, revised July 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Oakley CB, Bomba AK, Knight KB, Byrd SH. Evaluation of menus planned in Mississippi child-care centers participating in the Child and Adult Care Food Program. J Am Diet Assoc 1995; 95:765–768.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. NHANES I (1971–75): Braitman LE, Adkin EV, Stanton JL. Obesity and caloric intake: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1971–1975. (NHANES I). J Chron Dis 1985; 38:727–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. NHANES II: (1976–80): Dietary intake source data: United States, 1976–80. Data from the National Health Survey. Hyattsville, MD. USDHHS, PHS, NCHS, 1983. DHHS Publ (PHS)83–1681, series 11, No. 231.

    Google Scholar 

  60. NHANES III (1988–91): Daily dietary fat and total food energy intakes—National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), Phase 1:1988–1991. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 1994; 43:116–117; 123–125.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Alaimo K, McDowell MA, Briefel RR. Dietary intake of vitamins, minerals, and fiber of persons 2 months and over in the United States. Third National Health and Examination Survey, Phase I, 1988–91. Advance Data 1994; 258:1–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Human Nutrition Information Service. Nationwide food consumption survey of food intakes by individuals, women 19–50 years and their children 1–5 years, 4 days, 1986. US Dept of Agriculture, CSFII Report No., Hyattsville, MD, 1988; 86–83.

    Google Scholar 

  63. CFSII, 1989–91: US Department of Agriculture. Food and nutrient intakes by individuals in the United States, 1 day, 1989–1991. NFS Report No. 91–2. US GPO, Washington DC, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  64. CSFII, 1994–95. Food and nutrient intakes by individuals in the United States. 1 day, 1989–1991. NFS Rep No. 91–2 (NTIS Acsession No. PB95–272746.).

    Google Scholar 

  65. NCFS 1977–78: Nutrient intakes. Individuals in 48 states, year 1977–78. Human Nutrition Information Service, Nutrition Monitoring Division, USDA, 1984. Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 1977–78 report no.I-2.

    Google Scholar 

  66. NFCS 1987–88: US Dept Agriculture, Human Nutrition Information Service, Nutrition Monitoring Division Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals. Report no. 86–3. Hyattsville MD, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Kennedy E, Goldberg J What are American children eating? Implications for public policy. Nutr Rev 1995; 53(5):111–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Enns CW, Mickle SJ, Goldman JD. Trends in food and nutrition intakes by children in the United States. Family Economies and Nutrition Rev 2002; 14(2):56–68.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Food and Nutrient Intakes by Individuals in the United States, by sex and age, 1994–96. Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals. US Dept of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; NFS Report 96–2, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Wright HS, Guthrie HA, Wang MQ, Bernardo V. The 1987–88 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. An update on the nutrient intake of respondents. Nutr Today 1991; 26:21–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Williams CL. Importance of dietary fiber in childhood. J Am Diet Assoc 1995; 95:1040–1049.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. National Academy of Sciences. Macronutrient Report Washington DC, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  73. McDowell MA, Briefel RR, Alaimo K, et al. Energy and macronutrient intakes of persons ages 2 months and over in the United States: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Phase 1, 1988–91. Advance data from vital and health statistics; No 255. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Williams CL, Bollella MC, Strobino BA, et al. Healthy-Start: outcome of an intervention to promote a heart healthy diet in preschool children. J Amer Coll Nutr 2002; 21(1):62–71.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Goran MI, Poehlman ET, Johnson RK: Energy requirements accross the life span: new findings based on measurement of total energy expenditure with doubly labelled water. Nutr Res 1995; 15(1):115–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Fonteville AM, Dwyer J, Rauvussin E. Resting metabolic rate and body composition of Pima Indian and Caucasian children. Int J Obes 1992; 16:535–542.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Davies PS, Gregory J, White A. Energy expenditure in children 1.5 to 4.5 years. Eur J Clin Nutr 1995; 49(5):360–364.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Statement on cholesterol. Pediatrics 1992; 90:469.

    Google Scholar 

  79. National Cholesterol Education Panel. Report of the expert panel on blood cholesterol levels in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 1992;89(Suppl):1–91.

    Google Scholar 

  80. American Heart Association. Integrated cardiovascular health promotion in childhood. Circulation 1991; 85(4):1638–1650.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Healthy People 2000. National health promotion and disease prevention objectives. USDHHS, PHS, 1991. DHHS Publ. no:(PHS) 91–50212, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  82. NIH Consensus Development Panel. Lowering blood cholesterol to prevent heart disease. JAMA 1985; 253:2080–2086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Williams GM, Wynder EL. Diet and Cancer: A Synopsis of Causes and Prevention Strategies. In: Watson RR, ed. Nutrition and Cancer Prevention. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Williams CL, Bollella M. Nutrition in Childhood: Primary Cancer Prevention. In: Watson RR, ed. Nutrition and Cancer Prevention. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,1996.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Williams, CL, Bollella M, Williams GM. Cancer Prevention Beginning in Childhood. In: DeVita VT, ed. Cancer Prevention. JB Lippicott, Philadelphia, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Ravussin E, Tataranni A. Dietary fat and human obesity. JADA 1997; 97(7):S42–S46.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Klesges RC, Klesges LM, Eck L, Shelton ML. A longitudinal analysis of accelerated weight gain in preschool children. Pediatrics 1995; 95 (1):126–130.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Blundell J, Macdiarmid J. Fat as a risk factor for overconsumption: satiation, staiety, and patterns of living. JADA 91997; 7(7):S63–S69.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Lapinleimu T, Vikari J, Jokinen E, et al. Prospective randomized trial in 1062 infants of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol. Lancet 1995; 345:471–476.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Shea S, Basch CE, Stein AD, Contento IR, Irogoyen M, Zybert P. Is there a relationship between dietary fat and stature or growth in children 3 to 5 years of age? Pediatrics 1992; 92: 579–586.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Kuehl KS, Cockerham JT, Hitchings M, et al. Effective control of hypercholesterolemia in children with dietary interventions based in pediatric practice. Prev Med 1993; 22: 154–166.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Koletzko B. Childhood diet and prevention of heart disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991; 45:73–75.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Luepker RV, Perry CL, McKinley SM, et al. Outcomes of a field trial to improve children’s dietary patterns and physical activity. JAMA 1996; 275 (10):768–776.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. DISC Collaborative Research Group. Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of fat and cholesterol in children with elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. JAMA 1995; 273:1429–1435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Rask-Nissila L, Jokinen E, Terbo P, et al. Effects of diet on the neirological development of children at 5 years of age: the STRIP project. J Pediatr 2002; 140:328–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Enos W, Holmes R, Beyer J. Coronary artery disease among US soldiers killed in Korea. JAMA 1953; 512:1090–1092.

    Google Scholar 

  97. McNamara JJ, Molot MA, Stremple JF, et al. Coronary artery disease in combat casualties in Vietnam. JAMA 1971; 216:1185–1187.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Strong JP, Malcom GT, Oalmann MC. Environmental and genetic risk factors in early human atherogenesis: lessons from the PDAY Study. Pathological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth. Pathol Int 1995; 45(6):403–408.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Wissler RW. An overview of the quantitative influence of several risk factors on progression of atherosclerosis in young perople in the United States. Pathological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth. Am J Med Sci 1995; 310:S29–S36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Newman WP III, Wattigney W, Berenson GS. Autopsy studies in US children and adolescents. Relationship of risk factors to atherosclerotic lesions. Ann NY Acad Sci 1991; 623:16–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Cornhill JF, Herderick EE, Vince DG. The clinical morphology of human atherosclerotic lesions. Lessons from the PDAY Study. Pathological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1995; 107(18):540–543.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Wlliams CL. Prevention of Coronary Artery Disease: Pediatric Preventive Cardiology. In: Gewitz MH, ed. Primary Pediatric Cardiology. Futura Publishing. Armonk, NY, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Lauer RM, Shekelle RB. Childhood Prevention of Atherosclerosis and Hypertension. Raven Press, New York, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Williams CL. Clinical Intervention in Childhood. In: Ockene IS, Ockene JK, eds. Preventive Cardiology—A Behavioral Approach. Little Brown 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Wynder EL, Berenson GS, Strong WB, Williams CL. Coronary artery disease prevention: a pediatric perspective. Prev Med 1989; 18:323–409.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Berenson GS. Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Children. Oxford Press, New York, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Williams CL, Strobino B, Brotanek J, Squillace M, Campanaro L. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in low-income preschool children: Healthy Start. Can J Cardiol 1997; 13(Suppl B):174B.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Resnicow K, Kotchen JM, Wynder EL. Plasma cholesterol levels of 6585 US children. Results of the Know Your Body Screening in five states. Pediatrics 1989; 84:969–976.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Webber LS, Scrinivasan SR, Berenson GS. Tracking of serum lipids and lipoproteins over 12 years into young adulthood—The Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation 1988; 78:481.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Kallio MJT, Salmenpera L, Siimes MA, et al. Tracking of serum cholesterol and lipoprotein levels from the first year of life. Pediatrics 1993; 91:949–954.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Lauer R, Clarke WR. Use of cholesterol measurements in childhood for the prediction of adult hypercholesterolemia. JAMA 1997; 264(23):3034–3038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Munoz KA, Krebs-Smith SM, Balland-Barbash R. Cleveland: food intakes of children and adolescents compared with recommendations. Pediatrics 1997; 100(3):323–329.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Nicklas TA, Bao W, Webber LS, et al. Dietary intake patterns of infants and young children over a 12-year period: the Bogalusa Heart Study. J Advanc Med 1992; 5(2):89–103.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Singer MR, Moore LL, Garrahie EJ, Ellison RC. Tracking of nutrient intake in young children. AJPH 1995; 85(12):1673–1677.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Troiano RP, Flegal KM, Kuczmarski RJ, Campbell SM, Johnson CL. Overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963 to 1991. Arch Ped Adoles Med 1995; 149:1085–1091.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Update: Prevalence of overweight among children, adolescents and adults U.S., 1988–1994. MMWR 1997; 4:199–202.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Ogden C, Troiano RP, Briefel R, Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM, Johnson CL. Prevalence of overweight among preschool children in the United States, 1971 through 1994. Ped 1997; 99(4): e1–e13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Grunbaum JA, Kann L, Kinchen S, et al. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2003. MMWR Surveill 2004; 53(2):1–96.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Kann L, Warren CW, Harris WA, et al. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 1995. MMWR Surveill 1996; 45(4):1–84.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Rolland-Cachera M, Deheeger M, Guilloud-Bataille M. Tracking the development of obesity from one month of age to adulthood. Ann Hum Biol 1987; 14(3):219–229.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Osganian SK, Ebzery MK, Montgomery DH, et al. Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the CATCH Eat Smart Food Service Intervention. Prev Med 1996; 25(4):400–412.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Luepker RV, Perry CL, McKinley SM, et al: Outcomes of a field trial to improve children’s dietary patterns and physical activity. JAMA 1996; 275(10):768–776.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Stone EJ, Osganian SK, McKinley SM, et al. Operational Design and Quality Control in the CATCH Multicenter Trial. Prev Med 1996; 25(4):384–399.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Perry CL Stone EJ, Parcel GS, et al: School-based cardiovascular health promotion: the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH). J Sch Health 1990; 60(8):406–413.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Dwyer JT, Hewes LV, Mitchell PD, et al. Improving school breakfasts: effects of the CATCH Eat Smart Program on the nutrient content of school breakfasts. Prev Med 1996; 5:413–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Raizman DJ, Montgomery DH, Osganian SK. CATCH: food service program process evaluation in a multicenter trial. Health Educ Quart 1994; Suppl 2:S51–S71.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Nicklas TA, Dwyer J, Mitchell P, et al. Impact of fat reduction on micronutrient density of children’s diets: the CATCH study. Prev Med 1996; 25:478–485.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Obarzanek E, Hunsberger SA, Van Horn L, et al. Safety of a fat-reduced diet: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics 1997; 100:51–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Sigman-Grant M, Zimmerman S, Kris-Etherton PM. Dietary approaches for reducing fat intake in preschool children. Pediatrics 1993; 91(5):955–960.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Lagstrom H, Seppanen R, Jokinen E, et al. Influence of dietary fat on the nutrient intake and growth of children from 1 to 5 y of age: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69(3):16–23.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Rask-Nissila L, Jokinen E, Terho P, et al. Neurological development of 5 year old children receiving a low-saturated fat, low cholesterol diet since infancy: a randomised controlled trial. JAMA 2000; 284(8):993–1000.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Basch CE, Shea S, Zybert P. Food sources, dietary behavior, and the saturated fat intake of Latino children. AJPH 1992; 82:810–815.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Olson RE. The folly of restricting fat in the Diet of Children. Nutr Today 1995; 30(6):234–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Wosje KS, Specker BL, Giddens J. No difference in growth or body composition from age 12 to 24 months between toddlers consuming 2% milk and toddlers consuming whole milk. JADA 2001; 101(1):53–56.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Chase HP, Hambidge M, Barnett SE, Houts-Jacobs LB, Lenz K, Gillespie J. Low vitamin Aand zinc concentration in Mexican-American children with growth retardation. Am J Clin Nutr 1983; 37:828–833.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Williams CL, Spark A, Strobino BA, et al. Cardiovascular risk reduction in a preschool population: the Healthy Start Project. Prev Cardiol 1998; 2:45–55.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Bandura A. Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  138. D’Agostino C, D’Andrea T, Lieberman L, Sprance L, Williams CL. Healthy Start: a new comprehensive preschool health education program. J Health Ed 1999; 30(1):9–12.

    Google Scholar 

  139. D’Agostino C, D’Andrea T, Nix S, Williams CL. Increasing nutrition knowledge in preschool children: the Healthy Start Project Year 1. J Health Ed 1999; 30(4):217–221.

    Google Scholar 

  140. D’Agostino C, Nix S, Williams CL. Development and reliabilty of the Healthy Start knowledge computer quiz for preschool children. J School Health 1999; 69(1):9–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Spark A, Pfau J, Nicklas T, Williams CL. Reducing fat in preschool meals: description of the food service intervention component of Healthy Start. J Nutr Educ 1998; 30(3):170–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Bollella M, Boccia L, Nicklas T, et al. Dietary assessment of children in preschool: Healthy Start. Nutr Res 1999; 19(1):37–48.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Bollella M, Boccia L, Nicklas T, et al. Sources of nutrient intake in diets of Head Start children: home vs school. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18(2):108–114.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. MMWR 1997; 46(No.RR-6):1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  145. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Statement on cholesterol. Pediatrics 1998; 101(1):141–147.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Williams CL, Bollella M, Wynder E. A New Recommendation for dietary fiber in childhood. Pediatrics 1995; 96(5)S:985–988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Nicklas T, Myers L, Berenson GS. Impact of ready to eat cereal on the total dietary intake of children. JADA 1994; 94(3):316–318.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Niiikoski H, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Simell O. Fat and energy intake and children’s growth. Can J Cardiol 1997; 13(Suppl B): Abstract 0532.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Gutteridge MA. A study of the motor achievement of young children. Arch Psychol 1939; 244:1–178.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Bredenkamp S, ed. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8. National Association for the Education of Young Children. Washington, DC, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  151. United States Department of Agriculture. Center for Nutrition Policy ans promotion. Tips for Using the Food Guide Pyramid for Young Children 2 to 6 years old. USDA Program Aid 1647. Washington, DC, March 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Nutrition. Pediatrics 2003; 112(2):424–430.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2005 Humana Press Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Williams, C.L. (2005). Can Childhood Obesity Be Prevented?. In: Bendich, A., Deckelbaum, R.J. (eds) Preventive Nutrition. Nutrition and Health. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-880-9_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-880-9_14

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-445-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-880-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics