Skip to main content

The Use of Cytokine Knockout Mice in Neuroimmunology

  • Chapter
Cytokine Knockouts

Part of the book series: Contemporary Immunology ((CONTIM))

  • 383 Accesses

Summary

In this chapter, we have attempted to provide a synopsis of current work being performed using cytokine knockout or transgenic animals in neuroimmunology research. This is a fast-growing area that is expanding dramatically as genetically modified animals for cytokines, their receptors, or signalling components become available. We have focused primarily on the best-known cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10 & IL-4) simply to highlight the contribution so far of this tool to research into cytokines and neuroimmunology. In addition and as a reflection of the growing areas of research using this technology, we were limited to focusing on the use of genetically modified animals in two areas, namely, fever as a model of infection and stroke following middle cerebral artery occlusion as an approach to study brain injury and inflammation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Li, P., Allen, H., Banerjee, S., and Seshadri, T. (1997) Characterization of mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. J. Cell Biochem. 64, 27–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Glaccum, M. B., Stocking, K. L., Charrier, K., et al. (1997) Phenotypic and functional characterization of mice that lack the type I receptor for IL-1. J. Immunol. 159, 3364–3371.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Cullinan, E. B., Kwee, L., Nunes, P., et al. (1998) IL-1 receptor accessory protein is an essential component of the IL-1 receptor. J. Immunol. 161, 5614–5620.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Horai, R., Asano, M., Sudo, K., et al. (1998) Production of mice deficient in genes for interleukin (IL)-lalpha, IL-lbeta, IL-lalpha/beta, and IL-1 receptor antagonist shows that IL-]beta is crucial in turpentine-induced fever development and glucocorticoid secretion. J. Exp. Med. 187, 1463–1475.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Dinarello, C. A. (1999) Cytokines as endogenous pyrogens. J. Infect. Dis. 179 (Suppl. 2), S294–S304.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Klir, J. J., McClellan, J. L., and Kluger, M. J. (1994) Interleukin-1 beta causes the increase in anterior hypothalamic interleukin-6 during LPS-induced fever in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 266, R1845–R1848.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Luheshi, G., Miller, A. J., Brouwer, S., Dascombe, M. J., Rothwell, N. J., and Hopkins, S. J. (1996) Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits endotoxin fever and systemic interleukin-6 induction in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 270, E91–E95.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Leon, L. R., Conn, C. A., Glaccum, M., and Kluger, M. J. (1996) IL-1 type I receptor mediates acute phase response to turpentine, but not lipopolysaccharide, in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 271, R1668–R1675.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Kozak, W., Kluger, M. J., Soszynski, D., et al. (1998) IL-6 and IL-1 beta in fever. Studies using cytokine-deficient (knockout) mice. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 856, 33–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Alheim, K., Chai, Z., Fantuzzi, G., et al. (1997) Hyperresponsive febrile reactions to interleukin (IL) lalpha and IL- 1beta, and altered brain cytokine mRNA and serum cytokine levels, in IL1beta-deficient mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 2681–2686.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Zheng, H., Fletcher, D., Kozak, W., et al. (1995) Resistance to fever induction and impaired acute-phase response in interleukin-1 beta-deficient mice. Immunity 3, 9–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Luheshi, G. N., Steffen’, A., Turnbull, A.V., et al. (1997) Febrile response to tissue inflammation involves both peripheral and brain IL-1 and TNF-alpha in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 272, R862–R868.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Leon, L. R. (2002) Invited review: cytokine regulation of fever: studies using gene knockout mice. J. Appl. Physiol. 92, 2648–2655.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Fantuzzi, G. (2001) Lessons from interleukin-deficient mice: the interleukin-1 system. Acta Physiol. Scand. 173, 5–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Kluger, M. J., Kozak, W., Leon, L. R., and Conn, C. A. (1998) The use of knockout mice to understand the role of cytokines in fever. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 25, 141–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Zhao, B. and Schwartz, J. P. (1998) Involvement of cytokines in normal CNS development and neurological diseases: recent progress and perspectives. J. Neurosci. Res. 52, 7–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Munoz-Fernandez, M. A. and Fresno, M. (1998) The role of tumour necrosis factor, interleukin 6, interferon-gamma and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the development and pathology of the nervous system. Prog. Neurobiol. 56, 307–340.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Rothwell, N. J. and Luheshi, G. N. (2000) Interleukin 1 in the brain: biology, pathology and therapeutic target. Trends Neurosci. 23, 618–625.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Neumann, H. (2001) Control of glial immune function by neurons. Glia 36, 191–199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Minami, M., Kuraishi, Y., Yabuuchi, K., Yamazaki, A., and Satoh, M. (1992) Induction of inter-leukin-1 beta mRNA in rat brain after transient forebrain ischemia. J. Neurochem. 58, 390–392.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Relton, J. K. and Rothwell, N. J. (1992) Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits ischaemic and excitotoxic neuronal damage in the rat. Brain Res. Bull. 29, 243–246.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Liu, T., McDonnell, P. C., Young, P. R., et al. (1993) Interleukin-1 beta mRNA expression in ischemic rat cortex. Stroke 24, 1746–1750.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Yamasaki, Y., Matsuura, N., Shozuhara, H., Onodera, H., Itoyama, Y., and Kogure, K. (1995) Interleukin-1 as a pathogenetic mediator of ischemic brain damage in rats. Stroke 26, 676–680.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Touzani, O., Boutin, H., Chuquet, J., and Rothwell, N. (1999) Potential mechanisms of interleukin-1 involvement in cerebral ischaemic. J. Neuroimmunol. 100, 203–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Clark, W. M., Lessov, N. S., Dixon, M. P., and Eckenstein, F. (1997) Monofilament intraluminal middle cerebral artery occlusion in the mouse. Neurol. Res. 19, 641–648.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Friedlander, R. M., Gagliardini, V., Hara, H., et al. (1997) Expression of a dominant negative mutant of interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme in transgenic mice prevents neuronal cell death induced by trophic factor withdrawal and ischemic brain injury. J. Exp. Med. 185, 933–940.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Hara, H., Fink, K., Endres, M., et al. (1997) Attenuation of transient focal cerebral ischemic injury in transgenic mice expressing a mutant ICE inhibitory protein. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 17, 370–375.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Schielke, G. P., Yang, G. Y., Shivers, B. D., and Betz, A. L. (1998) Reduced ischemic brain injury in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme-deficient mice. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 18, 180–185.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Liu, X. H., Kwon, D., Schielke, G. P., Yang, G. Y., Silverstein, F. S., and Barks, J. D. E. (1999) Mice deficient in interleukin-1 converting enzyme are resistant to neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 19, 1099–1108.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Xu, H., Barks, J. D., Schielke, G. P., and Silverstein, F. S. (2001) Attenuation of hypoxia-ischemia-induced monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression in brain of neonatal mice deficient in interleukin-1 converting enzyme. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 90, 57–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Yang, G. Y., Schielke, G. P., Gong, C., et al. (1999) Expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 after focal cerebral ischemia in interleukin-lbeta converting enzyme deficient mice. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 19, 1109–1117.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Koedel, U., Winkler, F., Angele, B., Fontana, A., Flavell, R. A., and Pfister, H. W. (2002) Role of Caspase-1 in experimental pneumococcal meningitis: evidence from pharmacologic Caspase inhibition and Caspase-l-deficient mice. Ann. Neurol. 51, 319–329.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Boutin, H., LeFeuvre, R. A., Horai, R., Asano, M., Iwakura, Y., and Rothwell, N. J. (2001) Role of IL-lalpha and IL-lbeta in ischemic brain damage. J. Neurosci. 21, 5528–5534.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Boutin, H. and Rothwell, N. (2001) Endogenous IL-1 receptor antagonist is neuroprotective after cerebral ischaemia in mice. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 27: 329. 2.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Mizushima, H., Zhou, C. J., Dohi, K., et al. (2002) Reduced postischemic apoptosis in the hippo-campus of mice deficient in interleukin-1. J. Comp Neurol. 448, 203–216.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Touzani, O., Boutin, H., Lefeuvre, R. A., et al. (2002) Interleukin-1 influences ischemic brain damage in the mouse independently of the interleukin-1 type I receptor. J. Neurosci. 22, 38–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Greenfeder, S. A., Nunes, P., Kwee, L., Labow, M., Chizzonite, R. A., and Ju, G. (1995) Molecular cloning and characterization of a second subunit of the interleukin 1 receptor complex. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 13757–13765.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Laye, S., Liege, S., Li, K. S., Moze, E., and Neveu, P. J. (2001) Physiological significance of the interleukin 1 receptor accessory protein. Neuroimmunomodulation 9, 225–230.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Sims, J. E., Nicklin, M. J., Bazan, J. F., et al. (2001) A new nomenclature for IL-1-family genes. Trends Immunol. 22, 536–537.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Jander, S., Schroeter, M., and Stoll, G. (2002) Interleukin-18 expression after focal ischemia of the rat brain: association with the late-stage inflammatory response. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 22, 62–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Hedtjarn, M., Leverin, A. L., Eriksson, K., Blomgren, K., Mallard, C., and Hagberg, H. (2002) Interleukin-18 involvement in hypoxie-ischemic brain injury. J. Neurosci. 22, 5910–5919.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Yao, J., Keri, J. E., Taffs, R. E., and Colton, C. A. (1992) Characterization of interleukin-1 production by microglia in culture. Brain Res. 591, 88–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Basu, A., Krady, J. K., O’Malley, M., Styren, S. D., DeKosky, S. T., and Levison, S. W. (2002) The type 1 interleukin-1 receptor is essential for the efficient activation of microglia and the induction of multiple proinflammatory mediators in response to brain injury. J. Neurosci. 22, 6071–6082.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Lehnardt, S., Lachance, C., Patrizi, S., et al. (2002) The toll-like receptor TLR4 is necessary for lipopolysaccharide-induced oligodendrocyte injury in the CNS. J. Neurosci. 22, 2478–2486.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Brough, D., Le Feuvre, R. A., Iwakura, Y., and Rothwell, N. J. (2002) Purinergic (P2X7) receptor activation of microglia induces cell death via an interleukin-l-independent mechanism. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 19, 272–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Fantuzzi, G., Ku, G., Harding, M. W., et al. (1997) Response to local inflammation of IL-1 beta-converting enzyme-deficient mice. J. Immunol. 158, 1818–1824.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Parker, L. C., Luheshi, G. N., Rothwell, N. J., and Pinteaux, E. (2002) IL-lbeta signalling in glial cells in wildtype and IL-1RI deficient mice. Br. J. Pharmacol. 136, 312–320.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Nalivaeva, N. N., Rybakina, E. G., Pivanovich, I. Y., Kozinets, I. A., Shanin, S. N., and Bartfai, T. (2000) Activation of neutral sphingomyelinase by IL-lbeta requires the type 1 interleukin 1 receptor. Cytokine 12, 229–232.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Zetterstrom, M., Lundkvist, J., Malinowsky, D., Eriksson, G., and Bartfai, T. (1998) Interleukin-lmediated febrile responses in mice and interleukin-1 beta activation of NFkappaB in mouse primary astrocytes, involves the interleukin-1 receptor accessory protein. Eur. Cytokine Netw. 9, 131–138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Kawai, T., Adachi, O., Ogawa, T., Takeda, K., and Akira, S. (1999) Unresponsiveness of MyD88deficient mice to endotoxin. Immunity 11, 115–122.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Thomas, J. A., Allen, J. L., Tsen, M., et al. (1999) Impaired cytokine signaling in mice lacking the IL-1 receptor-associated kinase. J. Immunol. 163, 978–984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Kanakaraj, P., Schafer, P. H., Cavender, D. E., et al. (1998) Interleukin (IL)-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) requirement for optimal induction of multiple IL-1 signaling pathways and IL-6 production. J. Exp. Med. 187, 2073–2079.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Suzuki, N., Suzuki, S., Duncan, G. S., et al. (2002) Severe impairment of interleukin-1 and Toll-like receptor signalling in mice lacking IRAK-4. Nature 416, 750–756.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Cacabelos, R., Alvarez, X. A., Fernandez-Novoa, L., et al. (1994) Brain interleukin-1 beta in Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 16, 141–151.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Del Bo, R., Angeretti, N., Lucca, E., De Simoni, M. G., and Forloni, G. (1995) Reciprocal control of inflammatory cytokines, IL-1 and IL-6, and beta-amyloid production in cultures. Neurosci. Lett. 188, 70–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Perez, R. G., Zheng, H., Van der Ploeg, L. H., and Koo, E. H. (1997) The beta-amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer’s disease enhances neuron viability and modulates neuronal polarity. J. Neurosci. 17, 9407–9414.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. White, A. R., Zheng, H., Galatis, D., et al. (1998) Survival of cultured neurons from amyloid precursor protein knock-out mice against Alzheimer’s amyloid-beta toxicity and oxidative stress. J. Neurosci. 18, 6207–6217.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. DeGiorgio, L. A., Shimizu, Y., Chun, H. S., et al. (2002) APP knockout attenuates microglial activation and enhances neuron survival in substantia nigra compacta after axotomy. Glia 38, 174–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Gadient, R. A. and Otten, U. H. (1997) Interleukin-6 (IL-6)-a molecule with both beneficial and destructive potentials. Prog. Neurobiol. 52, 379–390.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. LeMay, L. G., Vander, A. J., and Kluger, M. J. (1990) Role of interleukin 6 in fever in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 258, R798–R803.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Rothwell, N. J., Busbridge, N. J., LeFeuvre, R. A., Hardwick, A. J., Gauldie, J., and Hopkins, S. J. (1991) Interleukin-6 is a centrally acting endogenous pyrogen in the rat. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 69, 1465–1469.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Chai, Z., Gatti, S., Toniatti, C., Poli, V., and Bartfai, T. (1996) Interleukin (IL)-6 gene expression in the central nervous system is necessary for fever response to lipopolysaccharide or IL-1 beta: a study on IL-6-deficient mice. J. Exp. Med. 183, 311–316.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. LeMay, L. G., Otterness, I. G., Vander, A. J., and Kluger, M. J. (1990) In vivo evidence that the rise in plasma IL 6 following injection of a fever-inducing dose of LPS is mediated by IL 1 beta. Cytokine 2, 199–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Loddick, S. A., Turnbull, A. V., and Rothwell, N. J. (1998) Cerebral interleukin-6 is neuroprotective during permanent focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 18, 176–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Tilg, H., Trehu, E., Atkins, M. B., Dinarello, C. A., and Mier, J. W. (1994) Interleukin-6 (IL-6) as anti-inflammatory cytokines: induction of circulating IL-1 receptor antagonist and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor p55. Blood 83, 113–118.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Campbell, I. L., Abraham, C. R., Masliah, E., et al. (1993) Neurologic disease induced in transgenic mice by cerebral overexpression of interleukin 6. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 10061–10065.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Brett, F. M., Mizisin, A. P., Powell, H. C., and Campbell, I. L. (1995) Evolution of neuropathologic abnormalities associated with blood-brain barrier breakdown in transgenic mice expressing interleukin-6 in astrocytes. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 54, 766–775.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Di Santo, E., Alonzi, T., Fattori, E., et al. (1996) Overexpression of interleukin-6 in the central nervous system of transgenic mice increases central but not systemic proinflammatory cytokine production. Brain Res. 740, 239–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Steffensen, S. C., Campbell, I. L., and Henriksen, S. J. (1994) Site-specific hippocampal pathophysiology due to cerebral overexpression of interleukin-6 in transgenic mice. Brain Res. 652, 149–153.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Swartz, K. R., Liu, F., Sewell, D., et al. (2001) Interleukin-6 promotes post-traumatic healing in the central nervous system. Brain Res. 896, 86–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Penkowa, M., Giralt, M., Carrasco, J., Hadberg, H., and Hidalgo, J. (2000) Impaired inflammatory response and increased oxidative stress and neurodegeneration after brain injury in interleukin-6deficient mice. Glia 32, 271–285.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Clark, W. M., Rinker, L. G., Lessov, N. S., et al. (2000) Lack of interleukin-6 expression is not protective against focal central nervous system ischemia. Stroke 31, 1715–1720.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Murphy, P. G., Borthwick, L. A., Altares, M., Gauldie, J., Kaplan, D., and Richardson, P. M. (2000) Reciprocal actions of interleukin-6 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor on rat and mouse primary sensory neurons. Eur. J. Neurosci. 12, 1891–1899.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Klein, M. A., Moller, J. C., Jones, L. L., Bluethmann, H., Kreutzberg, G. W., and Raivich, G. (1997) Impaired neuroglial activation in interleukin-6 deficient mice. Glia 19, 227–233.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. D’Arcangelo, G., Tancredi, V., Onofri, F., D’Antuono, M., Giovedi, S., and Benfenati, F. (2000) Interleukin-6 inhibits neurotransmitter release and the spread of excitation in the rat cerebral cortex. Eur. J. Neurosci. 12, 1241–1252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Ali, C., Nicole, O., Docagne, F., et al. (2000) Ischemia-induced interleukin-6 as a potential endogenous neuroprotective cytokine against NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity in the brain. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 20, 956–966.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Klir, J. J., McClellan, J. L., Kozak, W., Szelenyi, Z., Wong, G. H., and Kluger, M. J. (1995) Systemic but not central administration of tumor necrosis factor-alpha attenuates LPS-induced fever in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 268, R480–R486.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Long, N. C., Otterness, I., Kunkel, S. L., Vander, A. J., and Kluger, M. J. (1990) Roles of interleukin 1 beta and tumor necrosis factor in lipopolysaccharide fever in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 259, R724–R728.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Long, N. C., Vander, A. J., Kunkel, S. L., and Kluger, M. J. (1990) Antiserum against tumor necrosis factor increases stress hyperthermia in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 258, R591–R595.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Long, N. C., Kunkel, S. L., Vander, A. J., and Kluger, M. J. (1990) Antiserum against tumor necrosis factor enhances lipopolysaccharide fever in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 258, R332–R337.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Kettelhut, I. C. and Goldberg, A. L. (1988) Tumor necrosis factor can induce fever in rats without activating protein breakdown in muscle or lipolysis in adipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest. 81, 1384–1389.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Nakamura, H., Seto, Y., Motoyoshi, S., Kadokawa, T., and Sunahara, N. (1988) Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor causes long-lasting and prostaglandin-mediated fever, with little tolerance, in rabbits. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 245, 336–341.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Leon, L. R., Kozak, W., Peschon, J., and Kluger, M. J. (1997) Exacerbated febrile responses to LPS, but not turpentine, in TNF double receptor-knockout mice. Am. J. Physiol. 272, R563–R569.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Nawashiro, H., Tasaki, K., Ruetzler, C. A., and Hallenbeck, J. M. (1997) TNF-alpha pretreatment induces protective effects against focal cerebral ischemia in mice. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 17, 483–490.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Wang, X., Li, X., Erhardt, J. A., Barone, F. C., and Feuerstein, G. Z. (2000) Detection of tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA induction in ischemic brain tolerance by means of real-time polymerase chain reaction. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 20, 15–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Feuerstein, G., Wang, X., and Barone, F. C. (1998) Cytokines in brain ischemia-the role of TNF alpha. Cell Mol. Neurobiol. 18, 695–701.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Liu, T., Clark, R. K., McDonnell, P. C., et al. (1994) Tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in ischemic neurons. Stroke 25, 1481–1488.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Yang, G. Y., Gong, C., Qin, Z., Liu, X. H., and Lorris, B. A. (1999) Tumor necrosis factor alpha expression produces increased blood-brain barrier permeability following temporary focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 69, 135–143.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Shohami, E., Ginis, I., and Hallenbeck, J. M. (1999) Dual role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in brain injury. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 10, 119–130.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Rothwell, N. J. and Luheshi, G. N. (1996) Brain TNF: damage limitation or damaged reputation? Nat. Med. 2, 746–747.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Stahel, P. F., Shohami, E., Younis, F. M., et al. (2000) Experimental closed head injury: analysis of neurological outcome, blood-brain barrier dysfunction, intracranial neutrophil infiltration, and neuronal cell death in mice deficient in genes for pro-inflammatory cytokines. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 20, 369–380.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Benigni, F., Faggioni, R., Sironi, M., et al. (1996) TNF receptor p55 plays a major role in centrally mediated increases of serum IL-6 and corticosterone after intracerebroventricular injection of TNF. J. Immunol. 157, 5563–5568.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Bruce, A. J., Boling, W., Kindy, M. S., et al. (1996) Altered neuronal and microglial responses to excitotoxic and ischemic brain injury in mice lacking TNF receptors. Nat. Med. 2, 788–794.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Akassoglou, K., Probert, L., Kontogeorgos, G., and Kollias, G. (1997) Astrocyte-specific but not neuron-specific transmembrane TNF triggers inflammation and degeneration in the central nervous system of transgenic mice. J. Immunol. 158, 438–445.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Aloe, L., Fiore, M., Probert, L., Turrini, P., and Tirassa, P. (1999) Overexpression of tumour necrosis factor alpha in the brain of transgenic mice differentially alters nerve growth factor levels and choline acetyltransferase activity. Cytokine 11, 45–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Gary, D. S., Bruce-Keller, A. J., Kindy, M. S., and Mattson, M. P. (1998) Ischemic and excitotoxic brain injury is enhanced in mice lacking the p55 tumor necrosis factor receptor. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 18, 1283–1287.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Barker, V., Middleton, G., Davey, F., and Davies, A. M. (2001) TNFalpha contributes to the death of NGF-dependent neurons during development. Nat. Neurosci. 4, 1194–1198.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Neumann, H., Schweigreiter, R., Yamashita, T., Rosenkranz, K., Wekerle, H., and Barde, Y. A. (2002) Tumor necrosis factor inhibits neurite outgrowth and branching of hippocampal neurons by a rho-dependent mechanism. J. Neurosci. 22, 854–862.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Nguyen, V. T. and Benveniste, E. N. (2002) Critical role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and NF-kappa B in interferon-gamma-induced CD40 expression in microglia/macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 13796–13803.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Parnet, P., Kelley, K. W., Bluthe, R. M., and Dantzer, R. (2002) Expression and regulation of interleukin-1 receptors in the brain. Role in cytokines-induced sickness behavior. J. Neuroimmunol. 125, 5–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Yang, L., Lindholm, K., Konishi, Y., Li, R., and Shen, Y. (2002) Target depletion of distinct tumor necrosis factor receptor subtypes reveals hippocampal neuron death and survival through different signal transduction pathways. J. Neurosci. 22, 3025–3032.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Da Silva, J., Pierrat, B., Mary, J. L., and Lesslauer, W. (1997) Blockade of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway inhibits inducible nitric-oxide synthase expression in mouse astrocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 28373–28380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Kitsberg, D., Formstecher, E., Fauquet, M., et al. (1999) Knock-out of the neural death effector domain protein PEA-15 demonstrates that its expression protects astrocytes from TNFalpha-induced apoptosis. J. Neurosci. 19, 8244–8251.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Arnett, H. A., Mason, J., Marino, M., Suzuki, K., Matsushima, G. K., and Ting, J. P. (2001) TNF alpha promotes proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitors and remyelination. Nat. Neurosci. 4, 1116–1122.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Vitkovic, L., Maeda, S., and Sternberg, E. (2001) Anti-inflammatory cytokines: expression and action in the brain. Neuroimmunomodulation 9, 295–312.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Ledeboer, A., Breve, J. J., Poole, S., Tilders, F. J., and Van Dam, A. M. (2000) Interleukin-10, interleukin-4, and transforming growth factor-beta differentially regulate lipopolysaccharide-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in co-cultures of rat astroglial and micro-glial cells. Glia 30, 134–142.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Pousset, F., Cremona, S., Dantzer, R., Kelley, K., and Parnet, P. (1999) Interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 regulate IL1-beta induced mouse primary astrocyte activation: a comparative study. Glia 26, 12–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. de Waal, M. R., Abrams, J., Bennett, B., Figdor, C. G., and de Vries, J. E. (1991) Interleukin 10 (IL-10) inhibits cytokine synthesis by human monocytes: an autoregulatory role of IL-10 produced by monocytes. J. Exp. Med. 174, 1209–1220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Nava, F., Calapai, G., Facciola, G., et al. (1997) Effects of interleukin-10 on water intake, locomotory activity, and rectal temperature in rat treated with endotoxin. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 19, 31–38.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Ledeboer, A., Binnekade, R., Breve, J. J., Bol, J. G., Tilders, F. J., and Van Dam, A. M. (2002) Site-specific modulation of LPS-induced fever and interleukin-1 beta expression in rats by interleukin-10. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 282, R1762–R1772.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Leon, L. R., Kozak, W., Rudolph, K., and Kluger, M. J. (1999) An antipyretic role for interleukin10 in LPS fever in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 276, R81–R89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Grilli, M., Barbieri, I., Basudev, H., et al. (2000) Interleukin-l0 modulates neuronal threshold of vulnerability to ischaemic damage. Eur. J. Neurosci. 12, 2265–2272.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Spera, P. A., Ellison, J. A., Feuerstein, G. Z., and Barone, F. C. (1998) IL-10 reduces rat brain injury following focal stroke. Neurosci. Lett. 251, 189–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Molina-Holgado, F., Grencis, R., and Rothwell, N. J. (2001) Actions of exogenous and endogenous IL-10 on glial responses to bacterial LPS/cytokines. Glia 33, 97–106.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Falcone, M., Rajan, A. J., Bloom, B. R., and Brosnan, C. F. (1998) A critical role for IL-4 in regulating disease severity in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis as demonstrated in IL-4deficient C57BL/6 mice and BALB/c mice. J. Immunol. 160, 4822–4830.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Keogh, B., Atkins, G. J., Mills, K. H., and Sheahan, B. J. (2002) Avirulent Semliki Forest virus replication and pathology in the central nervous system is enhanced in IL-12-defective and reduced in IL-4-defective mice: a role for Thi cells in the protective immunity. J. Neuroimmunol. 125, 15–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Andersson, A., Grunewald, S. M., Duschl, A., Fischer, A., and DiSanto, J. P. (1997) Mouse macrophage development in the absence of the common gamma chain: defining receptor complexes responsible for IL-4 and IL-13 signaling. Eur. J. Immunol. 27, 1762–1768.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Mohrs, M., Ledermann, B., Kohler, G., Dorfmuller, A., Gessner, A., and Brombacher, F. (1999) Differences between IL-4- and IL-4 receptor alpha-deficient mice in chronic leishmaniasis reveal a protective role for IL-13 receptor signaling. J. Immunol. 162, 7302–7308.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Wurster, A. L., Withers, D. J., Uchida, T., White, M. F., and Grusby, M. J. (2002) Stat6 and IRS-2 cooperate in interleukin 4 (IL-4)-induced proliferation and differentiation but are dispensable for IL-4-dependent rescue from apoptosis. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22, 117–126.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2003 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Luheshi, G.N., Pinteaux, E., Boutin, H. (2003). The Use of Cytokine Knockout Mice in Neuroimmunology. In: Fantuzzi, G. (eds) Cytokine Knockouts. Contemporary Immunology. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-405-4_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-405-4_5

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-61737-415-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-405-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics