Abstract
The most common component in the pathway to amputation is the diabetic foot ulcer (1,2). Although some progress has been made in increasing awareness of the problem of the etopathogenesis of diabetic foot ulceration, much work still needs to be done (3,4). By the end of the first quarter of the present millennium, more than 300 million persons worldwide will have diabetes (5). If we appreciate the fact that, at any one time, up to 7% of at-risk patients with diabetes have a diabetic wound (6) and that most ulcerations are entirely avoidable, the concept of prevention takes on a new urgency. In this chapter, we discuss the key evidence-based risk factors for ulceration, which may be broken down into three practical screening questions to identify patients at highest risk for skin breakdown. We then discuss seven essential questions to answer when both describing and classifying diabetic foot ulceration.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Pecoraro RE, Reiber GE, Burgess EM. Pathways to diabetic limb amputation: basis for prevention. Diabetes Care 1990;13:513–521.
Mayfield JA, Reiber GE, Sanders LJ, Janisse D, Pogach LM. Preventive foot care in people with diabetes [see comments]. Diabetes Care 1998;21:2161–2177.
Reiber GE. Diabetic foot care: financial implications and practice guidelines. Diabetes Care 1992;15(Suppl 1):29–31.
Reiber GE. Who is at risk of limb loss and what to do about it? J Rehabil Res Dey 1994;31: 357–362.
King H, Aubert RE, Herman WH. Global burden of diabetes, 1995–2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections [see comments]. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1414–1431.
Abbott CA, Vileikyte L, Williamson S, Carrington AL, Boulton AJ. Multicenter study of the incidence of and predictive risk factors for diabetic neuropathic foot ulceration. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1071–1075.
Lavery LA, Armstrong DG, Vela SA, Quebedeaux TL, Fleischli JG. Practical criteria for screening patients at high risk for diabetic foot ulceration. Arch Intern Med 1998;158: 158–162.
Reiber GE, Vileikyte L, Boyko EJ, et al. Causal pathways for incident lower-extremity ulcers in patients with diabetes from two settings. Diabetes Care 1999;22:157–162.
Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Vela SA, Quebedeaux TL, Fleischli JG. Choosing a practical screening instrument to identify patients at risk for diabetic foot ulceration. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:289–292.
Bloom S, Till S, Sönsken P, Smith S. Use of a biothesiometer to measure individual vibration thresholds and their variation in 519 non-diabetic subjects. BMJ 1984;288:1793–1795.
Young MJ, Breddy JL, Veves A, Boulton AJM. The prediction of diabetic neuropathic foot ulceration using vibration perception thresholds. Diabetes Care 1994;16:557–560.
Young MJ, Every N, Boulton AJ. A comparison of the neurothesiometer and biothesiometer for measuring vibration perception in diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1993; 20:129–131.
Boulton AJ. Guidelines for diagnosis and outpatient management of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. European Association for the Study of Diabetes, EURODIAB. Diabetes Metab 1998;24(Suppl 3):55–65.
Kumar S, Fernando DJ, Veves A, et al. Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments: a simple, effective and inexpensive screening device for identifying diabetic patients at risk of foot ulceration. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1991;13:63–67.
Mueller MJ. Identifying patients with diabetes who are at risk for lower extremity complications: use of Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. Phys Ther 1996;76:68–71.
Olmos PR, Cataland S, O’Dorisio TM, et al. The Semmes-Weinstein monofilament as a potential predictor of foot ulceration in patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes. Am J Med Sci 1995;309:76–82.
Booth J, Young MJ. Differences in performance of commercially available 10-g monofilaments. Diabetes Care 2000;23:984–988.
Armstrong DG. The 10-g monofilament: the diagnostic divining rod for the diabetic foot? [editorial] [In Process Citation]. Diabetes Care 2000;23:887.
Murray HJ, Young MJ, Hollis S, Boulton AJ. The association between callus formation, high pressures and neuropathy in diabetic foot ulceration. Diabet Med 1996;13:979–982.
Young MJ, Cavanagh PR, Thomas G, et al. The effect of callus removal on dynamic plantar foot pressures in diabetic patients. Diabet Med 1992;9:55–57.
Pitei DL, Foster A, Edmonds M. The effect of regular callus removal on foot pressures. J Foot Ankle Surg 1999;38:251–255; discussion 306.
Collier JH, Brodbeck CA. Assessing the diabetic foot: plantar callus and pressure sensation. Diabetes Educ 1993;19:503–508.
Rosen RC, Davids MS, Bohanske LM, Lemont H. Hemorrhage into plantar callus and diabetes mellitus. Cutis 1985;35:339–341.
Ahroni JH, Boyko EJ, Forsberg RC. Clinical correlates of plantar pressure among diabetic veterans. Diabetes Care 1999;22:965–972.
Boulton AJ, Betts RP, Franks CI, Ward JD, Duckworth T. The natural history of foot pressure abnormalities in neuropathic diabetic subjects. Diabetes Res 1987;5:73.
Duckworth T, Betts RP, Franks CI, Burke J. The measurement of pressure under the foot. Foot Ankle 1982;3:130.
Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Bushman TR. Peak foot pressures influence healing time of diabetic ulcers treated with total contact casting. J Rehabil Res Dey 1998;35:1–5.
Cavanagh PR, Ulbrecht JS, Caputo GM. Biomechanical aspects of diabetic foot disease: aetiology, treatment, and prevention. Diabet Med 1996;13(Suppl 1):S17–S22.
Birke JA, Novick ES, Hawkins ES, Patout C. A review of causes of foot ulceration in patients with diabetes mellitus. J Prosthet Orthot 1991;4:13–16.
Grant WP, Sullivan R, Soenshine DE, et al. Electron microscopic investigation of the effects of diabetes mellitus on the Achilles tendon. J Foot Ankle Surg 1997;36:272–278.
Rosenbloom AL, Silverstein JH, Lexotte DC. Limited joint mobility in childhood diabetics indicates increased risk for microvascular diseases. N Engl J Med 1982;305:191–194.
Rosenbloom AL. Skeletal and joint manifestations of childhood diabetes. Pediatr Clin North Am 1984;31:569–589.
Birke JA, Franks D, Foto JG. First ray joint limitation, pressure, and ulceration of the first metatarsal head in diabetes mellitus. Foot Ankle 1995;16:277–284.
Lavery LA, Lavery DC, Quebedeax-Farnham TL. Increased foot pressures after great toe amputation in diabetes. Diabetes Care 1995;18:1460–462.
Frykberg RG, Lavery LA, Pham H, et al. Role of neuropathy and high foot pressures in diabetic foot ulceration [In Process Citation]. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1714–1719.
Fernando DJS, Masson EA, Veves A, Boulton AJM. Relationship of limited joint mobility to abnormal foot pressures and diabetic foot ulceration. Diabetes Care 1991;14:8–11.
Armstrong DG, Stacpoole-Shea S, Nguyen HC, Harkless LB. Lengthening of the Achilles tendon in diabetic patients who are at high risk for ulceration of the foot. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1999;81A:535–538.
Birke J, Cornwall MA, Jackson M. Relationship between hallux limitus and ulceration of the great toe. Sports Phys Ther J Orthop 1988;10:172–176.
Goldner MG. The fate of the second leg in the diabetic amputee. Diabetes 1960;9:100–103.
Armstrong DG, Lavery LA. Plantar pressures are higher in diabetic patients following partial foot amputation. Ostomy Wound Manage 1998;44:30–32, 34, 36 passim.
Quebedeaux TL, Lavery LA, Lavery DC. The development of foot deformities and ulcers after great toe amputation in diabetes. Diabetes Care 1996;19:165–167.
Murdoch DP, Armstrong DG, Dacus JB, et al. The natural history of great toe amputations. J Foot Ankle Surg 1997;36:204–208.
Uccioli L, Faglia E, Monticone G, et al. Manufactured shoes in the prevention of diabetic foot ulcers. Diabetes Care 1995;18:1376–378.
Helm PA, Walker SC, Pulliam GF. Recurrence of neuropathic ulcerations following healing in a total contact cast. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1991;72:967–970.
International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot. International Consensus on the Diabetic Foot. EASD, Amsterdam, 1999.
Rith-Najarian SJ, Stolusky T, Gohdes DM. Identifying diabetic patients at risk for lower extremity amputation in a primary health care setting. Diabetes Care 1992;15:1386–1389.
Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Harkless LB. Who’s at risk for diabetic foot ulceration? Clin Podiatr Med Surg 1998;15:11–19.
Steiner G. Diabetes and atherosclerosis; epidemiology and intervention trials, in Atherosclerosis X (Woodford FP, Davingnon J, Sniderman A, eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1995, pp. 13–93.
Edmonds ME. Experience in a multidisciplinary diabetic foot clinic, in The Foot in Diabetes (Connor H, Boulton AJM, Ward JD, eds.), John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987, pp. 121–131.
Thompson FJ, Veves A, Ashe H, et al. A team approach to diabetic foot care the Manchester experience. Foot 1991;1:75–82.
Weitz JI, Byrne J, Clagett GP, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: a critical review. Circulation 1996;94:3026–3049.
Holstein P, Lassen NA. Healing of ulcers on the feet correlated with distal blood pressure measurements in occlusive arterial disease. Acta Orthop Scand 1980;51:995–1006.
Orchard TJ, Strandness DE. Assessment of peripheral vascular disease in diabetes: report and recommendation of an international workshop. Diabetes Care 1993;83:685–695.
Franzeck UK, Talke P, Bernstein EF, Golbranson FL, Fronek A. Transcutaneous PO2 measurements in health and peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Surgery 1982;91:156–163.
Grayson ML, Balaugh K, Levin E, Karchmer AW. Probing to bone in infected pedal ulcers. A clinical sign of underlying osteomyelitis in diabetic patients. JAMA 1995;273:721–723.
Birke JA, Novick A, Patout CA, Coleman WC. Healing rates of plantar ulcers in leprosy and diabetes. Lepr Rev 1992;63:365–374.
Reiber GE, Pecoraro RE, Koepsell TD. Risk factors for amputation in patients with diabetes mellitus: a case control study. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:97–105.
Mayfield JA, Reiber GE, Nelson RG, Greene T. A foot risk classification system to predict diabetic amputation in pima indians. Diabetes Care 1996;19:704–709.
Wunderlich RP, Peters EJ, Armstrong DG, Lavery LA. Reliability of digital videometry and acetate tracing in measuring the surface area of cutaneous wounds. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2000;49:87–92.
Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Harkless LB. Validation of a diabetic wound classification system: the contribution of depth, infection, and vascular disease to the risk of amputation. Diabetes Care 1998;21:855–859.
Oyibo SO, Jude EB, Tarawneh I, et al. A comparison of two diabetic foot ulcer classification systems. Diabetes 2000;49(Suppl 1):A33.
Armstrong DG, Lavery LA. Diabetic foot ulcers: prevention, diagnosis and classification. Am Fam Physician 1988;57:1325–1332, 1337–1338.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Armstrong, D.G., Jude, E., Boulton, A.J.M., Harkless, L.B. (2002). Clinical Examination of the Diabetic Foot and Identification of the At-Risk Patient. In: Veves, A., Giurini, J.M., LoGerfo, F.W. (eds) The Diabetic Foot. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-168-8_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-168-8_9
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-61737-253-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-168-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive