Skip to main content

Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

  • Chapter
Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases

Part of the book series: Infectious Disease ((ID))

  • 210 Accesses

Abstract

In the early 1980s, previously healthy homosexual men began presenting with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) and other opportunistic infections. It soon became evident that these men were suffering from immunocompromise brought on by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The virus targets CD4+ cells, resulting in damage to the immune system and leaving infected individuals susceptible to a spectrum of opportunistic infections.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Kahn JO, Walker B. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 33–39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National HIV Prevalence Surveys, 1997 Summary. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1998, pp. 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National HIV Prevalence Surveys, 1998 Midyear Summary Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1998, 1–37.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Gerberding JL. Management of occupational exposures to blood-borne viruses. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 444–451.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Katz MH, Gerberding JL. The care of persons with recent sexual exposure to HIV. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 306–311.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1173–1180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Gerberding JL. Prophylaxis for occupational exposure to HIV. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 497–501.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Anonymous. Case control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after percutaneous exposures to HIV-infected blood—France, United Kingdom, United States, January 1988–August 1994. MMWR 1995; 44: 929–933.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Anonymous. Update: provisional Public Health Service recommendations for chemoprophylaxis after occupational exposure to HIV. MMWR 1996; 45: 468–480.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Hu DJ, Dondero TJ, Rayfield MA, et al. The emerging genetic diversity of HIV—the importance of global surveillance for diagnostics, research and prevention. JAMA 1996; 275: 210–216.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Havlir DV, Richman DD. Viral dynamics of HIV: implications for drug development and therapeutic strategies. Ann Intern Med 1996; 124: 984–994.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Roos MT, Lange JM, De Goode RE, et al. Viral phenotype and immune response in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Infect Dis 1992; 165: 427–432.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Richman DD, Bozzette SA. The impact of syncytium-inducing phenotype of human immunodeficiency virus on disease progression. J Infect Dis 1994; 169: 968–974.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Volberding PA, Lagakos SW, Koch MA, et al. Zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infections: a controlled that in persons with fewer than 500 CD4+ cells per cubic millimeter. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 941–949.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Panel on Clinical Practice for Treatment of HIV Infection convened by the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, January, 2000. http://www.hivatis.org.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Anonymous. 1999 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 1999; 1–59.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Pachl C, Todd JA, Kern DG, et al. Rapid and precise quantification of HIV-1 RNA in plasma using a branched DNA signal amplification assay. J AIDS 1995; 8: 446–454.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Mulder J, McKinney N, Christopherson C, et al. Rapid and simple PCR assay for quantification of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA in plasma: application to acute retroviral infection. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 292–300.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kievits T, Van German B, Van Strijp, et al. NASBA isothermal enzymatic in vitro nucleic acid amplification optimized for the diagnosis of HIV-1 infection. J Virol Methods 1991; 35: 273–286.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Mellors JW, Rinaldo CR, Gupta P, et al. Prognosis in HIV-1 infection predicted by the quantity of virus in the plasma. Science 1996; 272: 1167–1170.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Flexner C. HIV-protease inhibitors. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 1281–1292.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Tseng LA, Foisy MM. Management of drug interactions in patients with HIV. Ann Pharmacother 1997; 31: 1040–1058.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Hirsch MS, Conway B, D’aquilia RT, et al. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adults with HIV testing. JAMA 1998; 279: 1977–1983.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Friedland GH. Adherence: the achilles’ heal of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Improving the management of HIV disease. Int AIDS Soc USA 1997; 31: 1040–1058.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Condra JH. Resistance to HIV protease inhibitors. Haemophilia 1998; 4: 610–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Schrager LK, D’Souza P. Cellular and anatomical reservoirs of HIV-1 in patients receiving potent antiretrovirals. JAMA 1998; 280: 67–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Romanelli F, Pomeroy C, Smith KM. Hydroxyurea to inhibit human immunodeficiency virus-1 replication. Pharmacotherapy 1999; 19: 196–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Wainberg S, Friedland G. Public health implications of antiretroviral therapy and HIV drug resistance. JAMA 1998; 279: 1977–1983.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Moyle GR. Current knowledge of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase mutations selected during nucleoside analogue therapy: the potential to use resistance data to guide clinical decisions. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 40: 765–777.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Mayers D. Rational approaches to resistance: nucleoside analogues. AIDS 1996; 10: S9–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Mayers D. Prevalence and incidence of resistance to zidovudine and other antiretroviral drugs. Am J Med 1997; 102: 70–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. D’Aquila RT, Johnson VA, Welles SL, et al. Zidovudine resistance and HIV-1 disease progression during antiretroviral therapy. AIDs Clinical Trials Group Protocol 116B/117 Team and the Virology Committee Resistance Working Group. Ann Intern Med 1995; 122: 401–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Boucher CAB, Cammack N, Schipper P, et al. High level resistance to enantiomeric 2-deoxy-3thiacytadine in vitro is due to amino acid substitution in the catalytic site of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 2231–2234.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Tisdale M, Kemp SD, Parry NR, et al. Rapid in vitro selection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 resistant to 3-thiacytadine inhibitors due to a mutation in the YMDD region of reverse transcriptase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 5653–5656.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Schuurman R, Nijhuis M, Van Lauren R, et al. Rapid changes in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA load and appearance of drug-resistant populations in persons treated with lamivudine (3TC). J Infect Dis 1995; 171: 1411–1419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Coffin JM. HIV population dynamics in vivo: implications for genetic variation, pathogenesis, and therapy. Science 1995; 267: 483–489.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Tisdale M, Alnadaf T, Cousens D. Combination of mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase required for resistance to the carbocyclic nucleoside 1592U89. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1094–1098.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Bachler LT, George H, Hollis G, et al. Resistance to efavirenz (Sustiva®) in vitro. 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, 1998; Abstr. 703.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Shafer RW, Kozal MJ, Winters MA, et al. Combination therapy with zidovudine and didanosine selects for drug-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strains with unique patterns of pol gene mutations. J Infect Dis 1994; 169: 722–729.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Vanhove GF, Schapiro JM, Winters MA, et al. Patient compliance and drug failure in protease inhibitor monotherapy. JAMA 1996; 276: 1955–1956.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Jacobsen H, Hanggi M, Ott M. In vivo resistance to a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proteinase inhibitor: mutations, kinetics, and frequencies. J Infect Dis 1996; 173: 1379–1387.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Schapiro JM, Winters MA, Stewart F, et al. The effect of high-dose saquinavir on viral load and CD4+ T-cell counts in HIV-infected patients. Ann Intern Med 1996; 124: 1039–1050.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Ives KJ, Jacobsen H, Galpin SA, et al. Emergence of resistant variants of HIV in vivo during monotherapy with the proteinase inhibitor saquinavir. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39: 771–779.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Molla A, Korneyeva M, Gao Q, et al. Ordered accumulation of mutation in HIV protease confers resistance to ritonavir. Nat Med 1996; 2: 760–766.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Moyle GJ. Viral resistance pattern selected by antiretroviral drugs and their potential to guide treatment choice Exp Opin Invest Drugs 1997; 6: 943–948.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Condra JH, Holder DJ, Schleif WA, et al. Genetic correlates of in vivo viral resistance to indinavir, a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease inhibtor. J Virol 1996; 70: 8270–8276.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Patick AK, Mo H, Markowitz M, et al. Antiviral and resistance studies of AG1343, an orally bioavailable inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus protease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 292–297.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Patick AK, Duran M, Cao Y, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of HIV-1 variants isolated from in vitro selection studies and from patients treated with the protease inhibitor nelfinavir. International Workshop on HIV Drug Resistance, Treatment Strategies, and Eradication, St. Petersburg, Florida, 25–28 June 1997, Abstr. 18.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Parteledis JA. In vitro selection and characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) isolates with reduced sensitivity to hydroxyethylamino sulfonamide inhibitors of HIV-1 aspartyl protease. J Virol 1995; 69:5228–5235.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Tisdale M, Myers R, Najera I, et al. Analysis of resistance mutations with 141W94 (VX-478) and other HIV-1 protease inhibitors. 5th International Workshop on HIV Drug Resistance, 1996, Whistler, Canada; Abstr. 22.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Montaner JSG, Reiss P, Cooper D, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial comparing combinations of nevirapine, didanosine, and zidovudine for HIV-infected patients: the INACS Trial. JAMA 1998; 279: 930–937.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Hirsch MS, Conway B, D’aquila RT, et al. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adults with HIV infection. JAMA 1998; 279: 1984–1991.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Deeks SG, Abrams DI. Genotypic-resistance assays and antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 1997; 349: 1489–1490.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Hirsch MS, Brun-Vezinet F, Richman DD. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adult HIV-1 infection: Recommendations of an International AIDS Society-USA panel. JAMA 2000; 283: 2417–2426.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Romanelli, F., Pomeroy, C. (2001). Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. In: Mainous, A.G., Pomeroy, C. (eds) Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases. Infectious Disease. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-036-0_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-036-0_5

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-5708-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-036-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics