Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Combat-Related Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Prevalence and Risk Factors

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Sleep and Combat-Related Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Abstract

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with employment across a range of high-risk occupations and the military in particular. While prevalence rates differ depending on research methodology, numerous studies have found an association between deployment and PTSD. Risk factors include exposure to combat-related traumatic events as well as nontraumatic deployment stressors. Individual differences and a supportive unit climate and leadership have been identified as additional modifiers of risk. Besides addressing prevalence, this chapter frames the discussion of combat-related PTSD within an occupational health model. Using such a model has ramifications for understanding the symptoms, risk factors, and moderating variables associated with the development of combat-related PTSD. We also highlight the link between PTSD and sleep problems. Finally, we identify areas for future research.

The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not reflect the official position of the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, the US Army, or Department of Defense.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Adler AB, Wright KM, Bliese PD, Eckford R, Hoge CW. A2 diagnostic criterion for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 2008;21(3):301–8. doi:10.1002/jts.20336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Adler AB, Bliese PD, McGurk D, Hoge CW, Castro CA. Battlemind debriefing and battlemind training as early interventions with soldiers returning from Iraq: randomization by platoon. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77(5):928–40. doi:10.1037/a0016877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Adler AB, Britt TW, Castro CA, McGurk D, Bliese PD. Effect of transition home from combat on risk-taking and health-related behaviors. J Trauma Stress. 2011;24(4):381–9. doi:10.1002/jts.20665.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Adler AB, Saboe KN, Anderson J, Sipos ML, Thomas JL. Behavioral health leadership: new directions in occupational mental health. Curr Psychiatry rep. 2014;16(10):484. doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0484-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Adler AB, Gunia BC, Bliese PD, Kim PY, LoPresti ML. Using actigraphy feedback to improve sleep insoldiers: an exploratory trial. Sleep Health. 2017;3(2):126–31. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2017.01.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM- IV. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  7. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  8. Bliese PD, Britt TW. Social support, group consensus and stressor-strain relationships: social context matters. J Organ Behav. 2001;22(4):425–36. doi:10.1002/job.95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Bliese PD, Wright KM, Adler AB, Cabrera O, Castro CA, Hoge CW. Validating the primary care posttraumatic stress disorder screen and the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist with soldiers returning from combat. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76(2):272–81. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Bliese PD, Adler AB, Castro CA. Research-based preventive mental health care strategies in the military. In: Adler AB, Bliese PD, Castro CA, editors. Deployment psychology: evidence-based strategies to promote mental health in the military. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2011. p. 103–24.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  11. Boulos D, Zamorski MA. Contribution of the mission in Afghanistan to the burden of past-year mental disorders in Canadian Armed Forces Personnel, 2013. Can J Psychiatry. 2016;61(1 suppl):64S–76S. doi:10.1177/0706743716628857.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Breslau N, Davis GC. Posttraumatic stress disorder: the etiologic specificity of wartime stressors. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144(5):578–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Bryant RA, Harvey AG. Posttraumatic stress in volunteer firefighters. Predictors of distress. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1995;183(4):267–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Cabrera OA, Hoge CW, Bliese PD, Castro CA, Messer SC. Childhood adversity and combat as predictors of depression and post-traumatic stress in deployed troops. Am J Prev Med. 2007;33(2):77–82. S0749-3797(07)00235-8 [pii]. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.03.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Castro CA, Adler AB. Reconceptualizing combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder as an occupational hazard. In: Adler AB, Bliese PD, Castro CA, editors. Deployment psychology: evidence-based strategies to promote mental health in the military. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2011. p. 217–42.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  16. Delimar D, Sivik T, Korenjak P, Delimar N. The effect of different traumatic experiences on the development of post-traumatic stress disorder. Mil Med. 1995;160(12):635–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Dohrenwend BP, Turner JB, Turse NA, Adams BG, Koenen KC, Marshall R. The psychological risks of Vietnam for U.S. veterans: a revisit with new data and methods. Science. 2006;313:979–82. doi:10.1126/science.1128944.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Engelhard IM, van den Hout MA, Weerts J, Arntz A, Hox JJ, McNally RJ. Deployment-related stress and trauma in Dutch soldiers returning from Iraq. Prospective study. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;191:140–145. 191/2/140 [pii]. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.034884.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Fear NT, Jones M, Murphy D, Hull L, Iversen AC, Coker B, et al. What are the consequences of deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan on the mental health of the UK armed forces? A cohort study. Lancet. 2010;375(9728):1783–1797. S0140–6736(10)60672–1 [pii]. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60672-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Foa EB, Riggs DS, Dancu CV, Rothbaum BO. Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 1993;6(4):459–73. doi:10.1002/jts.2490060405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Fontana A, Rosenheck R. Psychological benefits and liabilities of traumatic exposure in the war zone. J Trauma Stress. 1998;11(3):485–503. doi:10.1023/A:1024452612412.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Fontana A, Rosenheck R. A model of war zone stressors and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12(1):111–26. doi:10.1023/A:1024750417154.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Fontana A, Litz B, Rosenheck R. Impact of combat and sexual harassment on the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder among men and women peacekeepers in Somalia. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2000;188(3):163–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Ford JD. Disorders of extreme stress following war-zone military trauma: associated features of posttraumatic stress disorder or comorbid but distinct syndromes? J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999;67(1):3–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gehrman P, Seelig AD, Jacobson IG, Boyko EJ, Hooper TI, Gackstetter GD, et al. Predeployment sleep duration and insomnia symptoms as risk factors for new-onset mental health disorders following military deployment. Sleep. 2013;36(7):1009–18. doi:10.5665/sleep.2798.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Germain A. Sleep disturbances as the hallmark of PTSD: where are we now? Am J Psychiatr. 2013;170(4):372–82. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12040432.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Gunia BC, Sipos ML, LoPresti ML, Adler AB. Sleep leadership in high-risk occupations: an investigation of soldiers on peacekeeping and combat missions. Mil Psychol. 2015;27(4):197–211. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mil0000078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Heron EA, Bryan CJ, Dougherty CA, Chapman WG. Military mental health: the role of daily hassles while deployed. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2013;201(12):1035–9. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000058.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Hoge CW, Castro CA, Messer SC, McGurk D, Cotting DI, Koffman RL. Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(1):13–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040603.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hoge CW, Riviere LA, Wilk JE, Herrell RK, Weathers FW. The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in US combat soldiers: a head-to-head comparison of DSM-5 versus DSM-IV-TR symptom criteria with the PTSD checklist. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1(4):269–77. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70235-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Hotopf M, Hull L, Fear NT, Browne T, Horn O, Iversen A, et al. The health of UK military personnel who deployed to the 2003 Iraq war: a cohort study. Lancet. 2006;367(9524):1731–1741. S0140–6736(06)68662–5 [pii]. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68662-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Ikin JF, Sim MR, Creamer MC, Forbes AB, McKenzie DP, Kelsall HL, et al. War-related psychological stressors and risk of psychological disorders in Australian veterans of the 1991 Gulf War. Br J Psychiatry. 2004;185:116–26. doi:10.1192/bjp.185.2.116185/2/116. [pii].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Interian A, Kline A, Janal M, Glynn S, Losonczy M. Multiple deployments and combat trauma: do homefront stressors increase the risk for posttraumatic stress symptoms? J Trauma Stress. 2014;27(1):90–7. doi:10.1002/jts.21885.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Iversen AC, Fear NT, Ehlers A, Hacker Hughes J, Hull L, Earnshaw M, et al. Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder among UK Armed Forces personnel. Psychol Med. 2008;38(4):511–522. S0033291708002778 [pii]. doi:10.1017/S0033291708002778.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Iversen AC, van Staden L, Hacker Hughes J, Browne T, Hull L, Hall J, et al. The prevalence of common mental disorders and PTSD in the UK military: using data from a clinical interview-based study. BMC Psychiatry. 2009;9(68) doi:10.1186/1471-244X-9-68.

  36. Joint Mental Health Advisory Team 7. Joint Mental Health Advisory Team 7 (J-MHAT 7): operation enduring freedom 2010, Afghanistan (2010). Retrieved from http://www.armymedicine.army.mil/reports/mhat/mhat_vii/J_MHAT_7.pdf.

  37. Jones N, Seddon R, Fear NT, McAllister P, Wessely S, Greenberg N. Leadership, cohesion, morale, and the mental health of UK Armed Forces in Afghanistan. Psychiatry. 2012;75(1):49–59. doi:10.1521/psyc.2012.75.1.49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kang HK, Natelson BH, Mahan CM, Lee KY, Murphy FM. Post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic fatigue syndrome-like illness among Gulf War veterans: a population-based survey of 30,000 veterans. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;157(2):141–8. doi:10.1093/aje/kwf187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Katz LS, Cojucar G, Davenport CT, Pedram C, Lindl C. Post-deployment readjustment inventory: reliability, validity, and gender differences. Mil Psychol. 2010;22:41–56. doi:10.1080/08995600903249222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Keane TM, Caddell JM, Taylor KL. Mississippi scale for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: three studies in reliability and validity. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1988;56(1):85–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Killgore WDS, Cotting DI, Thomas JL, Cox AL, McGurk D, Vo AH, et al. Post-combat invincibility: violent combat experiences are associated with increased risk-taking propensity following deployment. J Psychiatr Res. 2008;42(13):1112–21. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Milanak ME, Miller MW, Keyes KM, Friedman MJ. National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(5):537–47. doi:10.1002/jts.21848.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. King DW, King LA, Gudanowski DM, Vreven DL. Alternative representations of war zone stressors: relationships to posttraumatic stress disorder in male and female Vietnam veterans. J Abnorm Psychol. 1995;104(1):184–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. King LA, King DW, Fairbank JA, Keane TM, Adams GA. Resilience-recovery factors in post-traumatic stress disorder among female and male Vietnam veterans: hardiness, postwar social support, and additional stressful life events. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998;74(2):420–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. King DW, King LA, Foy DW, Keane TM, Fairbank JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans: risk factors, war-zone stressors, and resilience-recovery variables. J Abnorm Psychol. 1999;108(1):164–70. doi:10.1037//0021-843X.108.1.164.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Kok BC, Herrell RK, Thomas JL, Hoge CW. Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with combat service in Iraq or afghanistan: reconciling prevalence differences between studies. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012;200(5):444–50. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e318253231200005053-201205000-00012. [pii]

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Kulka RA, Schlenger WE, Fairbank JA, Hough RL, Jordan BK, Marmar CR, et al. Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: report of findings from the National Vietnam Readjustment Study. New York: Mazel; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Lee HA, Gabriel R, Bolton JP, Bale AJ, Jackson M. Health status and clinical diagnoses of 3000 UK Gulf War veterans. J R Soc Med. 2002;95(10):491–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Lester PB, McBride S, Bliese PD, Adler AB. Bringing science to bear: an empirical assessment of the comprehensive soldier fitness program. Am Psychol. 2011;66(1):77–81. doi:10.1037/a0022083.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Litz BT, Gray MJ, Boltan EE. Posttraumatic stress disorder following peacekeeping operations. In: Britt TW, Adler AB, editors. The psychology of the peacekeeper: lessons from the field. Westport: Praeger; 2003. p. 243–58.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Luxton DD, Greenburg D, Ryan J, Niven A, Wheeler G, Mysliwiec V. Prevalence and impact of short sleep duration in redeployed OIF soldiers. Sleep. 2011;34(9):1189–95. doi:10.5665/sl eep.1236.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Maguen S, Suvak M, Litz BT. Predictors and prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder among military veterans. In: Adler AB, Castro CA, Britt TW, editors. Military life: the psychology of serving in peace and combat, Operational Stress, vol. 2. Westport: Praeger Security International; 2006. p. 141–69.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Maguen S, Metzler TJ, Litz BT, Seal KH, Knight SJ, Marmar CR. The impact of killing in war on mental health symptoms and related functioning. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22(5):435–43. doi:10.1002/jts.20451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Maguen S, Lucenko BA, Reger MA, Gahm GA, Litz BT, Seal KH, et al. The impact of reported direct and indirect killing on mental health symptoms in Iraq war veterans. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(1):86–90. doi:10.1002/jts.20434.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Maguen S, Vogt DS, King LA, King DW, Litz BT, Knight SJ, Marmar CR. The impact of killing on mental health symptoms in Gulf War veterans. Psychol Trauma Theory Res Practice Policy. 2011;3(1):21–6. doi:10.1037/a0019897.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. McCarroll JE, Ursano RJ, Fullerton CS. Symptoms of PTSD following recovery of war dead: 13–15-month follow-up. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(6):939–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. McCuaig Edge HJ, Ivey GW. Mediation of cognitive appraisal on combat exposure on psychological distress. Mil Psychol. 2012;24(1):71–85. doi:10.1080/08995605.2012.642292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Milliken CS, Auchterlonie JL, Hoge CW. Longitudinal assessment of mental health problems among active and reserve component soldiers returning from the Iraq war. JAMA: J Am Med Assoc. 2007;298(18):2141–8. doi:10.1001/jama.298.18.2141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Mysliwiec V, McGraw L, Pierce R, Smith P, Trapp B, Roth BJ. Sleep disorders and associated medical comorbidities in active duty military personnel. Sleep. 2013;36(2):167–74. doi:10.5665/sleep.2364.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. O’Toole BI, Marshall RP, Grayson DA, Schureck RJ, Dobson M, Ffrench M, et al. The Australian Vietnam Veterans Health Study: III. psychological health of Australian Vietnam veterans and its relationship to combat. Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25(2):331–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Perrin MA, DiGrande L, Wheeler K, Thorpe L, Farfel M, Brackbill R. Differences in PTSD prevalence and associated risk factors among World Trade Center disaster rescue and recovery workers. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(9):1385–1394. 164/9/1385 [pii]. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06101645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Pietrzak RH, Whealin JM, Stotzer RL, Goldstein MB, Southwick SM. An examination of the relation between combat experiences and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder in a sample of Connecticut OEFOIF Veterans. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(12):1579–84. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.07.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Price M, Gros DF, Strachan M, Ruggiero KJ, Acierno R. Combat experiences, pre-deployment training, and outcome of exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in operation enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2012; doi:10.1002/cpp.1768.

  64. Prins A, Ouimette P, Kimerling R, Cameron RP, Hugelshofer DS, Shaw-Hegwer J, et al. The primary care PTSD screen (PC-PTSD): development and operating characteristics. Prim Care Psychiatry. 2003;9(1):9–14. doi:10.1185/135525703125002360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Reivich KJ, Seligman ME, McBride S. Master resilience training in the U.S. Army. Am Psychol. 2011;66(1):25–34. doi:10.1037/a0021897.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Richardson LK, Frueh BC, Acierno R. Prevalence estimates of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: critical review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010;44(1):4–19. doi:10.3109/00048670903393597.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Riviere LA, Merrill JC. The impact of combat deployment on military families. In: Adler AB, Bliese PB, Castro CA, editors. Deployment psychology: evidence-based strategies to promote mental health in the military. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2011. p. 125–49.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  68. Robinson HM, Sigman MR, Wilson JP. Duty-related stressors and PTSD symptoms in suburban police officers. Psychol Rep. 1997;81(3 Pt 1):835–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Seelig AD, Jacobson IG, Smith B, Hooper TI, Boyko EJ, Gackstetter GD, et al. Sleep patterns before, during, and after deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan. Sleep. 2010;33(12):1615–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Sharkansky EJ, King DW, King LA, Wolfe J, Erickson DJ, Stokes LR. Coping with Gulf War combat stress: mediating and moderating effects. J Abnorm Psychol. 2000;109(2):188–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Smith TC, Ryan MA, Wingard DL, Slymen DJ, Sallis JF, Kritz-Silverstein D. New onset and persistent symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder self reported after deployment and combat exposures: prospective population based US military cohort study. BMJ: British Medical Journal. 2008;336(7640):366–371. bmj.39430.638241.AE [pii]. doi:10.1136/bmj.39430.638241.AE.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Stretch RH. Psychosocial readjustment of Canadian Vietnam veterans. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991;59(1):188–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Sundin J, Fear NT, Iversen A, Rona RJ, Wessely S. PTSD after deployment to Iraq: conflicting rates, conflicting claims. Psychol Med. 2010;40(3):367–382. doi: S0033291709990791 [pii]. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990791.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Sundin J, Herrell RK, Hoge CW, Fear NT, Adler AB, Greenberg N, et al. Mental health outcomes in US and UK military personnel returning from Iraq. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204(3):200–7. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.129569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Swinkels CM, Ulmer CS, Beckham JC, Buse N, Calhoun PS. The Association of Sleep Duration, Mental Health, and Health Risk Behaviors among U.S. Afghanistan/Iraq era veterans. Sleep. 2013;36(7):1019–25. doi:10.5665/sleep.2800.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Taft CT, Stern AS, King LA, King DW. Modeling physical health and functional health status: the role of combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and personal resource attributes. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12(1):3–23. doi:10.1023/A:1024786030358.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Thomas JL, Wilk JE, Riviere LA, McGurk D, Castro CA, Hoge CW. Prevalence of mental health problems and functional impairment among active component and National Guard soldiers 3 and 12 months following combat in Iraq. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(6):614–23. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Thomas JL, Britt TW, Odle-Dusseau H, Bliese PB. Dispositional optimism buffers combat veterans from the negative effects of warzone stress on mental health symptoms and work impairment. J Clin Psychol. 2011;67:866–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Toblin RL, Riviere LA, Thomas JL, Adler AB, Kok BC, Hoge CW. Grief and physical health outcomes in U.S. soldiers returning from combat. J Affect Disord. 2012;136(3):469–475. S0165-0327(11)00715-4 [pii]. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Vogt D, Smith B, Elwy R, Martin J, Schultz M, Drainoni ML, Eisen S. Predeployment, deployment, and postdeployment risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology in female and male OEF/OIF veterans. J Abnorm Psychol. 2011;120(4):819–831. 2011-13218-001 [pii]. doi:10.1037/a0024457.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Warner CH, Appenzeller GN, Grieger T, Belenkiy S, Breitbach J, Parker J, et al. Importance of anonymity to encourange honest reporting in mental health screening after combat deployment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(10):1065–71. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Weathers FW, Litz BT, Herman DS, Huska JA, & Keane TM. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio;1993.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Wilk JE, Bliese PD, Kim PY, Thomas JL, McGurk D, Hoge CW. Relationship of combat experiences to alcohol misuse among U.S. soldiers returning from the Iraq war. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;108:115–21. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.12.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Williams SG, Collen J, Orr N, Holley AB, Lettieri CJ. Sleep disorders in combat-related PTSD. Sleep Breath. 2015;19(1):175–82. doi:10.1007/s11325-014-0984-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Wolfe J, Erickson DJ, Sharkansky EJ, King DW, King LA. Course and predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder among Gulf War veterans: a prospective analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999;67(4):520–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Wright KM, Britt TW, Bliese PD, Adler AB. Insomnia severity, combat exposure and mental health outcomes. Stress Health. 2010:1–9. doi:10.1002/smi.1373.

  87. Wright KM, Britt TW, Bliese PD, Adler AB, Picchioni D, Moore D. Insomnia as predictor versus outcome of PTSD and depression among Iraq combat veterans. J Clin Psychol. 2011;67(12):1240–58. doi:10.1002/jclp.20845.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, USA

    Amy B. Adler

  2. Department of Command, Leadership, and Management, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle, PA, USA

    Maurice L. Sipos

Authors
  1. Amy B. Adler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maurice L. Sipos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amy B. Adler .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Eric Vermetten

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

    Anne Germain

  3. University of California, San Francisco, California, USA

    Thomas C. Neylan

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Science+Business Media LLC

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Adler, A.B., Sipos, M.L. (2018). Combat-Related Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Prevalence and Risk Factors. In: Vermetten, E., Germain, A., Neylan, T. (eds) Sleep and Combat-Related Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7148-0_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7148-0_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-7146-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-7148-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation