Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assessing Nutritional Requirements for Preterm Infants

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Nutrition and Bone Health

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health ((NH))

  • 2956 Accesses

Abstract

Although the macrominerals calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium are of primary concern in bone health, other minerals, including trace minerals can also play an important role. In this chapter, the role of some of these will be considered. In general, the data supporting and defining the role of the trace minerals in bone health is much less well developed than for the macrominerals. In many cases, studies have used animal models, which are difficult to extrapolate to humans. In others, the relationship between serum levels of minerals and markers of bone health or assessment of bone mineral density are described. These are difficult to interpret, and even if a correlation between low serum copper and low bone mineral density (for example) is demonstrated this does not mean that additional dietary copper would improve bone mineral density. Such relationships are confounded by the other lifestyle and socioeconomic factors that may cause such differences in dietary intakes. In addition, low-quality diets may be deficient in more than one nutrient, making it extremely difficult to ascribe the change to any single nutrient. There are very few well-designed intervention studies in humans that address the importance of trace and ultratrace minerals in human bone metabolism. The one exception appears to be strontium, where there is increasing good-quality data (i.e. randomized controlled studies) suggesting that high-risk adults may benefit from strontium supplementation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Copper. In: Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, editors. Modern nutrition in health and disease. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  2. al-Rashid RA, Spangler J. Neonatal copper deficiency. N Engl J Med. 1971;285:841–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Blumenthal I, Lealman GT, Franklyn PP. Fracture of the femur, fish odour, and copper deficiency in a preterm infant. Arch Dis Child. 1980;55:229–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Karpel JT, Peden VH. Copper deficiency in long-term parenteral nutrition. J Pediatr. 1972;80:32–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Sutton AM, Harvie A, Cockburn F, Farquharson J, Logan RW. Copper deficiency in the preterm infant of very low birthweight. Four cases and a reference range for plasma copper. Arch Dis Child. 1985;60:644–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Grunebaum M, Horodniceanu C, Steinherz R. The radiographic manifestations of bone changes in copper deficiency. Pediatr Radiol. 1980;9:101–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Jonas J, Burns J, Abel EW, Cresswell MJ, Strain JJ, Paterson CR. Impaired mechanical strength of bone in experimental copper deficiency. Ann Nutr Metab. 1993;37:245–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Opsahl W, Zeronian H, Ellison M, Lewis D, Rucker RB, Riggins RS. Role of copper in collagen cross-linking and its influence on selected mechanical properties of chick bone and tendon. J Nutr. 1982;112:708–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Rucker RB, Riggins RS, Laughlin R, Chan MM, Chen M, Tom K. Effects of nutritional copper deficiency on the biomechanical properties of bone and arterial elastin metabolism in the chick. J Nutr. 1975;105:1062–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Strause L, Saltman P, Glowacki J. The effect of deficiencies of manganese and copper on osteoinduction and on resorption of bone particles in rats. Calcif Tissue Int. 1987;41:145–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Yee CD, Kubena KS, Walker M, Champney TH, Sampson HW. The relationship of nutritional copper to the development of postmenopausal osteoporosis in rats. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1995;48:1–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Rico H, Roca-Botran C, Hernandez ER, et al. The effect of supplemental copper on osteopenia induced by ovariectomy in rats. Menopause. 2000;7:413–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Rico H, Gomez-Raso N, Revilla M, et al. Effects on bone loss of manganese alone or with copper supplement in ovariectomized rats. A morphometric and densitomeric study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2000;90:97–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Strain JJ. A reassessment of diet and osteoporosis–possible role for copper. Med Hypotheses. 1988;27:333–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Angus RM, Sambrook PN, Pocock NA, Eisman JA. Dietary intake and bone mineral density. Bone Miner. 1988;4:265–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Gaier ED, Kleppinger A, Ralle M, Mains RE, Kenny AM, Eipper BA. High serum Cu and Cu/Zn ratios correlate with impairments in bone density, physical performance and overall health in a population of elderly men with frailty characteristics. Exp Gerontol. 2012;47:491–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Baker A, Harvey L, Majask-Newman G, Fairweather-Tait S, Flynn A, Cashman K. Effect of dietary copper intakes on biochemical markers of bone metabolism in healthy adult males. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1999;53:408–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Baker A, Turley E, Bonham MP, et al. No effect of copper supplementation on biochemical markers of bone metabolism in healthy adults. Br J Nutr. 1999;82:283–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Cashman KD, Baker A, Ginty F, et al. No effect of copper supplementation on biochemical markers of bone metabolism in healthy young adult females despite apparently improved copper status. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2001;55:525–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Strause L, Saltman P, Smith KT, Bracker M, Andon MB. Spinal bone loss in postmenopausal women supplemented with calcium and trace minerals. J Nutr. 1994;124:1060–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Zinc. In: Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, editors. Modern nutrition in health and disease. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Prasad AS, Miale Jr A, Farid Z, Sandstead HH, Schulert AR. Clinical and experimental. Zinc metabolism in patients with the syndrome of iron deficiency anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, dwarfism, and hypogonadism. 1963. J Lab Clin Med. 1990;116:737–49.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Atik OS. Zinc and senile osteoporosis. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1983;31:790–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Gur A, Colpan L, Nas K, et al. The role of trace minerals in the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoporosis and a new effect of calcitonin. J Bone Miner Metab. 2002;20:39–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Herzberg M, Foldes J, Steinberg R, Menczel J. Zinc excretion in osteoporotic women. J Bone Miner Res. 1990;5:251–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Relea P, Revilla M, Ripoll E, Arribas I, Villa LF, Rico H. Zinc, biochemical markers of nutrition, and type I osteoporosis. Age Ageing. 1995;24:303–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. New SA, Bolton-Smith C, Grubb DA, Reid DM. Nutritional influences on bone mineral density: a cross-sectional study in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65:1831–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Elmstahl S, Gullberg B, Janzon L, Johnell O, Elmstahl B. Increased incidence of fractures in middle-aged and elderly men with low intakes of phosphorus and zinc. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8:333–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Yamaguchi M. Role of nutritional zinc in the prevention of osteoporosis. Mol Cell Biochem. 2010;338:241–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Ehara Y, Yamaguchi M. Zinc stimulates protein synthesis in the femoral-metaphyseal tissues of normal and skeletally unloaded rats. Res Exp Med (Berl). 1997;196:363–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Yamaguchi M, Matsui R. Effect of dipicolinate, a chelator of zinc, on bone protein synthesis in tissue culture. The essential role of zinc. Biochem Pharmacol. 1989;38:4485–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Ma ZJ, Yamaguchi M. Stimulatory effect of zinc on deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in bone growth of newborn rats: enhancement with zinc and insulin-like growth factor-I. Calcif Tissue Int. 2001;69:158–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Igarashi A, Yamaguchi M. Increase in bone growth factors with healing rat fractures: the enhancing effect of zinc. Int J Mol Med. 2001;8:433–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ma ZJ, Misawa H, Yamaguchi M. Stimulatory effect of zinc on insulin-like growth factor-I and transforming growth factor-beta1 production with bone growth of newborn rats. Int J Mol Med. 2001;8:623–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Eberle J, Schmidmayer S, Erben RG, Stangassinger M, Roth HP. Skeletal effects of zinc deficiency in growing rats. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 1999;13:21–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Fushimi H, Inoue T, Yamada Y, et al. Zinc deficiency exaggerates diabetic osteoporosis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1993;20:191–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Yamaguchi M, Ehara Y. Zinc decrease and bone metabolism in the femoral-metaphyseal tissues of rats with skeletal unloading. Calcif Tissue Int. 1995;57:218–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Dimai HP, Hall SL, Stilt-Coffing B, Farley JR. Skeletal response to dietary zinc in adult female mice. Calcif Tissue Int. 1998;62:309–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Yamaguchi M, Yamaguchi R. Action of zinc on bone metabolism in rats. Increases in alkaline phosphatase activity and DNA content. Biochem Pharmacol. 1986;35:773–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Ovesen J, Moller-Madsen B, Thomsen JS, Danscher G, Mosekilde L. The positive effects of zinc on skeletal strength in growing rats. Bone. 2001;29:565–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kenney MA, McCoy H. Adding zinc reduces bone strength of rats fed a low-calcium diet. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1997;58:35–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Rossi L, Migliaccio S, Corsi A, et al. Reduced growth and skeletal changes in zinc-deficient growing rats are due to impaired growth plate activity and inanition. J Nutr. 2001;131:1142–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Bhardwaj P, Rai DV, Garg ML. Zinc as a nutritional approach to bone loss prevention in an ovariectomized rat model. Menopause. 2013;20:1184–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Norrdin RW, Krook L, Pond WG, Walker EF. Experimental zinc deficiency in weanling pigs on high and low calcium diets. Cornell Vet. 1973;63:264–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Leek JC, Keen CL, Vogler JB, et al. Long-term marginal zinc deprivation in rhesus monkeys. IV. Effects on skeletal growth and mineralization. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988;47:889–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Freudenheim JL, Johnson NE, Smith EL. Relationships between usual nutrient intake and bone-mineral content of women 35–65 years of age: longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;44:863–76.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Peretz A, Papadopoulos T, Willems D, et al. Zinc supplementation increases bone alkaline phosphatase in healthy men. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2001;15:175–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Nielsen FH, Lukaski HC, Johnson LK, Roughead ZK. Reported zinc, but not copper, intakes influence whole-body bone density, mineral content and T score responses to zinc and copper supplementation in healthy postmenopausal women. Br J Nutr. 2011;106:1872–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Sheng MH, Taper LJ, Veit H, Thomas EA, Ritchey SJ, Lau KH. Dietary boron supplementation enhances the effects of estrogen on bone mineral balance in ovariectomized rats. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2001;81:29–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Nielsen FH. The justification for providing dietary guidance for the nutritional intake of boron. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1998;66:319–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Rico H, Crespo E, Hernandez ER, Seco C, Crespo R. Influence of boron supplementation on vertebral and femoral bone mass in rats on strenuous treadmill exercise. A morphometric, densitometric, and histomorphometric study. J Clin Densitom. 2002;5:187–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Kaats GR, Preuss HG, Croft HA, Keith SC, Keith PL. A comparative effectiveness study of bone density changes in women over 40 following three bone health plans containing variations of the same novel plant-sourced calcium. Int J Med Sci. 2011;8:180–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Michalek JE, Preuss HG, Croft HA, et al. Changes in total body bone mineral density following a common bone health plan with two versions of a unique bone health supplement: a comparative effectiveness research study. Nutr J. 2011;10:32.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Hooshmand S, Chai SC, Saadat RL, Payton ME, Brummel-Smith K, Arjmandi BH. Comparative effects of dried plum and dried apple on bone in postmenopausal women. Br J Nutr. 2011;106:923–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Dijkgraaf-Ten Bolscher M, Netelenbos JC, Barto R, van Der Vijgh WJ. Strontium as a marker for intestinal calcium absorption: the stimulatory effect of calcitriol. Clin Chem. 2000;46:248–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Marie PJ, Ammann P, Boivin G, Rey C. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential of strontium in bone. Calcif Tissue Int. 2001;69:121–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Marie PJ, Hott M, Modrowski D, et al. An uncoupling agent containing strontium prevents bone loss by depressing bone resorption and maintaining bone formation in estrogen-deficient rats. J Bone Miner Res. 1993;8:607–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Dahl SG, Allain P, Marie PJ, et al. Incorporation and distribution of strontium in bone. Bone. 2001;28:446–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Delannoy P, Bazot D, Marie PJ. Long-term treatment with strontium ranelate increases vertebral bone mass without deleterious effect in mice. Metabolism. 2002;51:906–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Meunier PJ, Roux C, Seeman E, et al. The effects of strontium ranelate on the risk of vertebral fracture in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:459–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Reginster JY, Seeman E, De Vernejoul MC, et al. Strontium ranelate reduces the risk of nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: treatment of peripheral osteoporosis (TROPOS) study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:2816–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Reginster JY, Felsenberg D, Boonen S, et al. Effects of long-term strontium ranelate treatment on the risk of nonvertebral and vertebral fractures in postmenopausal osteoporosis: results of a five-year, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:1687–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Kaufman JM, Audran M, Bianchi G, et al. Efficacy and safety of strontium ranelate in the treatment of osteoporosis in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:592–601.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Cooper C, Reginster JY, Cortet B, et al. Long-term treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: a review from the European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis (ESCEO) and the International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF). Curr Med Res Opin. 2012;28:475–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Audran M, Jakob FJ, Palacios S, et al. A large prospective European cohort study of patients treated with strontium ranelate and followed up over 3 years. Rheumatol Int. 2013;33:2231–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Das S, Crockett JC. Osteoporosis—a current view of pharmacological prevention and treatment. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2013;7:435–48.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Kim MH, Bae YJ, Choi MK, Chung YS. Silicon supplementation improves the bone mineral density of calcium-deficient ovariectomized rats by reducing bone resorption. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2009;128:239–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Bae YJ, Kim JY, Choi MK, Chung YS, Kim MH. Short-term administration of water-soluble silicon improves mineral density of the femur and tibia in ovariectomized rats. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2008;124:157–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Eisinger J, Clairet D. Effects of silicon, fluoride, etidronate and magnesium on bone mineral density: a retrospective study. Magnes Res. 1993;6:247–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Jugdaohsingh R, Tucker KL, Qiao N, Cupples LA, Kiel DP, Powell JJ. Dietary silicon intake is positively associated with bone mineral density in men and premenopausal women of the Framingham Offspring cohort. J Bone Miner Res. 2004;19:297–307.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Macdonald HM, Hardcastle AC, Jugdaohsingh R, Fraser WD, Reid DM, Powell JJ. Dietary silicon interacts with oestrogen to influence bone health: evidence from the Aberdeen Prospective Osteoporosis Screening Study. Bone. 2012;50:681–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Ghanizadeh G, Babaei M, Naghii MR, Mofid M, Torkaman G, Hedayati M. The effect of supplementation of calcium, vitamin D, boron, and increased fluoride intake on bone mechanical properties and metabolic hormones in rat. Toxicol Ind Health. 2012;30:211–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Palacios C. The role of nutrients in bone health, from A to Z. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2006;46:621–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Riggs BL, Hodgson SF, O’Fallon WM, et al. Effect of fluoride treatment on the fracture rate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:802–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Meunier PJ, Sebert JL, Reginster JY, et al. Fluoride salts are no better at preventing new vertebral fractures than calcium-vitamin D in postmenopausal osteoporosis: the FAVOStudy. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8:4–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Reginster JY, Meurmans L, Zegels B, et al. The effect of sodium monofluorophosphate plus calcium on vertebral fracture rate in postmenopausal women with moderate osteoporosis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:1–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Ringe JD, Kipshoven C, Coster A, Umbach R. Therapy of established postmenopausal osteoporosis with monofluorophosphate plus calcium: dose-related effects on bone density and fracture rate. Osteoporos Int. 1999;9:171–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Grey A, Garg S, Dray M, et al. Low-dose fluoride in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:2301–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Rico H, Gallego-Lago JL, Hernandez ER, et al. Effect of silicon supplement on osteopenia induced by ovariectomy in rats. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000;66:53–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, UC Davis Children’s Hospital, Ticon II Building, 2516 Stockton Blvd., Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA

    Ian J. Griffin

Authors
  1. Ian J. Griffin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ian J. Griffin .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, Physiology, and Biophysics, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Michael F. Holick

  2. Helen Hayes Hospital and Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA

    Jeri W. Nieves

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Griffin, I.J. (2015). Assessing Nutritional Requirements for Preterm Infants. In: Holick, M., Nieves, J. (eds) Nutrition and Bone Health. Nutrition and Health. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2001-3_25

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2001-3_25

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-2000-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-2001-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation