Abstract
A key attribute of systems is that internally the components are connected in various relations. That is, the physical system is a network of relations between components. It is also possible to “represent” a system as an abstract network of nodes and links. The science and mathematics of networks can be brought to bear on the analysis of these representations, and characteristics of network topologies can be used to help understand structures, functions, and overall dynamics.
“…the web of life consists of networks within networks. At each scale, under closer scrutiny, the nodes of the network reveal themselves as smaller networks.”
Fritjof Capra, The Web of Life, 1996
“The mystery of life begins with the intricate web of interactions, integrating the millions of molecules within each organism. The enigma of the society starts with the convoluted structure of the social network… Therefore, networks are the prerequisite for describing any complex system …”
Albert-László Barabási , Linked, 2002
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Notes
- 1.
It turns out that flows and forces are actually the same thing where a flow imparts a force that was imparted to it at its source. The four forces of nature, in quantum theory, are often described as the exchange of particles, e.g., gluons for the strong nuclear force, between node particles, e.g., protons and neutrons.
- 2.
Just Google “amoeba movement.”
- 3.
We highly recommend a very readable book by Albert-László Barabási (2002) called Linked: How Everything is Connected to Everything Else and What It Means for Business, Science, and Everyday Life, Penguin Group, New York.
- 4.
Some exceptions to adulthood meaning reproduction exist but they are evolved to support the ultimate success of the species. For example, the worker ants or bees in colonies do not reproduce, but support the queen who serves as the main reproductive organ for the colony as a whole.
- 5.
Epigenetics refers to molecular processes that take place outside of the DNA molecules themselves but that regulate the transcription of DNA into RNA and eventually determine which proteins get manufactured in different cell types, e.g., insulin produced in specialized pancreatic cells. Some of these mechanisms can actually be inherited by offspring, so they are a nongenetic form of inheritance. See Jablonka and Lamb (2005).
- 6.
Sir Berners-Lee, now Director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), was a computer scientist working at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) when he devised the communications protocol (HTTP) and the architecture of hypertext linked web pages. For his incredible innovation and continued work on the evolution of the WWW, he was benighted by Queen Elizabeth II of England. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee
- 7.
See Ogle (2007) for an insightful extended analysis of the emergence of a global information network he characterizes as an “extended mind.” His book offers an excellent description of the attributes and dynamics of networks and their application and potentials for contemporary social, economic, and cultural systems.
- 8.
See Barabási (2002), ch. 4. We borrow his term, “small world,” to describe this characteristic of networks.
- 9.
Graph theory is a rich mathematical formalism for working with graphs, network objects such as shown in Fig. 4.1. For background see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory
- 10.
A “climax” system is distinguished by a relatively sustainable equilibrium, in that the varieties of plants cohabit and may even mutually benefit one another, versus systems in transition as some forms of plants drive out and replace others.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Barabási AL (2002) Linked: how everything is connected to everything else and what it means for business, science, and everyday life. Penguin Group, New York
Anderson WT (2004) All connected now: life in the first global civilization. Westview Press, Boulder, CO
Capra F (1996) The Web of life. Anchor Books, New York
Capra F (2002) The hidden connections. Doubleday, New York
Jablonka E, Lamb M (2005) Evolution in four dimensions. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
Ogle R (2007) Smart world: breakthrough creativity and the new science of ideas. Harvard Business School Press, Boston
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Mobus, G.E., Kalton, M.C. (2015). Networks: Connections Within and Without. In: Principles of Systems Science. Understanding Complex Systems. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1920-8_4
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