Abstract
Today most bacteria that were previously universally susceptible to antibiotics are resistant to at least some antibiotics and, in some cases, to many different ones. We must face this unsettling situation now, only 100 years since the recognition that bacteria cause disease and only 50 years since the discovery of antibiotics. When antibiotics came into being, they were a godsend. Natural substances made by one microorganism could inhibit growth and kill another. Scientists learned to produce, harvest, and purify these substances for treatment of diseases caused by microorganisms. The dramatic effect of antibiotics in treating previously fatal diseases led to enormous expectations. Even minor symptoms, once left to our own body defenses, were given over to drug therapy, in many cases to these new “miracle” agents. But there was an unexpected consequence to this reliance on antibiotics. Bacteria developed ways to resist them. With increased and prolonged use came selection of bacteria that were no longer killed by the antibiotic. These strains propagated and took their places in the environment, coming back to cause infections that were not cured by these drugs.
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References Cited
Chow, J. W., Fine, M. J., and Shlaes, D. M. Enterobacter bacteremia: clinical features and emergence of antibiotic resistance during therapy. Ann. Int. Med. 115:585–590, 1991.
Croft, B. A. Arthropod resistance to insecticides: a key to pest control failures and successes in North American apple orchards. Ent. Exp. Appl. 31:88–110, 1982.
Datta, N., Faiers, M. C., Reeves, D. S. et al. R factors in Escherichia coli in faeces after oral chemotherapy in general practice. The Lancet ii: 312–315, 1971.
Davis, C. D. and Anandan, J. The evolution of R factor: a study of a “preantibiotic” community in Borneo. N. Engl. J. Med. 282:117–122, 1970.
Deuchars, K. L. and Ling, V. P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance in cancer chemotherapy. Sem. Oncology 16:156–165, 1989.
Gardner, P., Smith, D. H., Beer, H., and Moellering, R. C., Jr. Recovery of resistance (R) factors from a drug-free community. The Lancet, pp. 774–776, October 11, 1969.
George, A. M. and Levy, S. B. Amplifiable resistance to tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and other antibiotics in Escherichia coli: identification of a non-plasmid mediated efflux system for tetracycline. J. Bacteriol. 155:531–540, 1983.
Hughes, V. M. and Datta, N. Conjugative plasmids in bacteria of the “preantibiotic” era. Nature 302:725–726, 1983.
Kloos, W. E. Effect of single antibiotic therapy on Staphylococcus community structure. APUA Newsletter 5:4:1–2, 1987.
Krogstad, D. J., Schlesinger, P. H., and Herwaldt, B. L. Antimalarial agents: mechanisms of chloroquine resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32:799–801, 1988.
Levy, S. B. Microbial resistance to antibiotics: an evolving and persistent problem. The Lancet i:83–88, 1982.
Levy, S. B. Evolution and spread of tetracycline resistance determinants. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 24:1–3, 1989.
Levy, S. B. and Miller, R. V. Eds. Gene Transfer in the Environment. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, 1989.
Levy, S. B., Marshall, B., Schluederberg, S. et al. High frequency of antimicrobial resistance in human fecal flora. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32: 1801–1806, 1988.
Mare, I. J. Incidence R factors among gram-negative bacteria in drug-free human and animal communities. Nature (London) 220:1046–1047, 1968.
Mare, I. J. and Coetzee, J. N. The incidence of transmissible drug resistance factors among strains of Escherichia coli in the Pretoria area. S.A. Med. J., pp. 980–981, November 5, 1966.
Moller, J. K., Bak, A. L., Stenderup, A., Zachariae, H., and Afzelius, H. Changing patterns of plasmid-mediated resistance during tetracycline therapy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 11:388–391, 1977.
Murray, B. E., Renismer, E. R., and DuPont, H. L. Emergence of high-level trimethoprim resistance in fecal Escherichia coli during oral administration of trimethoprim or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. N. Engl. J. Med.306:130–135, 1982.
Novick, R. P. Penicillinase plasmids of Staphylococcus aureus. Fed. Proc. 27:29–38, 1967.
O’Brien, T. F., del Pilar Pla, M., Mayer, K. H., et al. Intercontinental spread of a new antibiotic resistance gene on an epidemic plasmid. Science230:87–88, 1985.
Roberts, M. C. Gene transfer in the urogenital and respiratory tract. In: Gene Transfer in the Environment, pp. 347–376. (Levy S. B. and Miller, R. V. Eds.), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989.
Rolland, R. M., Hausfater, G., Marshall, B., and Levy, S. B. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in wild primates: Increased prevalence in baboons feeding on human refuse. Appl. Env. Microbiol. 49:791–794, 1985.
Sanders, C. C. New β-lactams: new problems for the internist. Ann. Int. Med. 115:650–651, 1991.
Smith, D. H. Salmonella with transferable drug resistance. N. Engl. J. Med.275:625–630, 1966.
Sugarman, B. and Besanti, E. Treatment failures secondary to in vivo development of drug resistance by microorganisms. Rev. Infect. Dis. 2:153–167, 1980.
Tauxe, R. V., Cavanagh, T. R. and Cohen, M. L. Interspecies gene transfer in vivo producing an outbreak of multiply resistant Shigellosis. J. Infect. Dis.160:1067–1070, 1989.
Zscheck, K. K., Hull, R., and Murray, B. E. Restriction mapping and hybridization studies of a α-lactamase-encoding fragment from Streptococcus (Enterococcus) faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32:768–769, 1988.
Bibliography Chapter 4
Chow, J. W., Fine, M. J., and Shlaes, D. M. Enterobacter bacteremia: clinical features and emergence of antibiotic resistance during therapy. Ann. Int. Med. 115:585–590, 1991.
Croft, B. A. Arthropod resistance to insecticides: a key to pest control failures and successes in North American apple orchards. Ent. Exp. Appl. 31:88–110, 1982.
Datta, N., Faiers, M. C., Reeves, D. S. et al. R factors in Escherichia coli in faeces after oral chemotherapy in general practice. The Lancet ii: 312–315, 1971.
Davis, C. D. and Anandan, J. The evolution of R factor: a study of a “preantibiotic” community in Borneo. N. Engl. J. Med. 282:117–122, 1970.
Deuchars, K. L. and Ling, V. P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance in cancer chemotherapy. Sem. Oncology 16:156–165, 1989.
Gardner, P., Smith, D. H., Beer, H., and Moellering, R. C., Jr. Recovery of resistance (R) factors from a drug-free community. The Lancet, pp. 774–776, October 11, 1969.
George, A. M. and Levy, S. B. Amplifiable resistance to tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and other antibiotics in Escherichia coli: identification of a non-plasmid mediated efflux system for tetracycline. J. Bacteriol. 155:531–540, 1983.
Hughes, V. M. and Datta, N. Conjugative plasmids in bacteria of the “preantibiotic” era. Nature 302:725–726, 1983.
Kloos, W. E. Effect of single antibiotic therapy on Staphylococcus community structure. APUA Newsletter 5:4:1–2, 1987.
Krogstad, D. J., Schlesinger, P. H., and Herwaldt, B. L. Antimalarial agents: mechanisms of chloroquine resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32:799–801, 1988.
Levy, S. B. Microbial resistance to antibiotics: an evolving and persistent problem. The Lancet i:83–88, 1982.
Levy, S. B. Evolution and spread of tetracycline resistance determinants. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 24:1–3, 1989.
Levy, S. B. and Miller, R. V. Eds. Gene Transfer in the Environment. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, 1989.
Levy, S. B., Marshall, B., Schluederberg, S. et al. High frequency of antimicrobial resistance in human fecal flora. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32: 1801–1806, 1988.
Mare, I. J. Incidence R factors among gram-negative bacteria in drug-free human and animal communities. Nature (London) 220:1046–1047, 1968.
Mare, I. J. and Coetzee, J. N. The incidence of transmissible drug resistance factors among strains of Escherichia coli in the Pretoria area. S.A. Med. J., pp. 980–981, November 5, 1966.
Moller, J. K., Bak, A. L., Stenderup, A., Zachariae, H., and Afzelius, H. Changing patterns of plasmid-mediated resistance during tetracycline therapy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 11:388–391, 1977.
Murray, B. E., Renismer, E. R., and DuPont, H. L. Emergence of high-level trimethoprim resistance in fecal Escherichia coli during oral administration of trimethoprim or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. N. Engl. J. Med.306:130–135, 1982.
Novick, R. P. Penicillinase plasmids of Staphylococcus aureus. Fed. Proc. 27:29–38, 1967.
O’Brien, T. F., del Pilar Pla, M., Mayer, K. H., et al. Intercontinental spread of a new antibiotic resistance gene on an epidemic plasmid. Science230:87–88, 1985.
Roberts, M. C. Gene transfer in the urogenital and respiratory tract. In: Gene Transfer in the Environment, pp. 347–376. (Levy S. B. and Miller, R. V. Eds.), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989.
Rolland, R. M., Hausfater, G., Marshall, B., and Levy, S. B. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in wild primates: Increased prevalence in baboons feeding on human refuse. Appl. Env. Microbiol. 49:791–794, 1985.
Sanders, C. C. New β-lactams: new problems for the internist. Ann. Int. Med. 115:650–651, 1991.
Smith, D. H. Salmonella with transferable drug resistance. N. Engl. J. Med.275:625–630, 1966.
Sugarman, B. and Besanti, E. Treatment failures secondary to in vivo development of drug resistance by microorganisms. Rev. Infect. Dis. 2:153–167, 1980.
Tauxe, R. V., Cavanagh, T. R. and Cohen, M. L. Interspecies gene transfer in vivo producing an outbreak of multiply resistant Shigellosis. J. Infect. Dis.160:1067–1070, 1989.
Zscheck, K. K., Hull, R., and Murray, B. E. Restriction mapping and hybridization studies of a α-lactamase-encoding fragment from Streptococcus (Enterococcus) faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32:768–769, 1988.
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© 1992 Stuart B. Levy
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Levy, S.B. (1992). Antibiotic Resistance. In: The Antibiotic Paradox. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-6042-9_4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-6042-9_4
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