Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social Models for Changing Health-Relevant Behavior

  • Chapter
Preventing AIDS

Part of the book series: AIDS Prevention and Mental Health ((APMH))

Abstract

In the early days of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic, public health interventions put major emphasis on education because there was an urgent need to get the news out about the dangers of a new disease and about steps that might help to combat its spread. Education, however, was clearly not all that was needed. Thus, a range of additional intervention techniques were developed, most of them focusing on individuals as their targets. These interventions were guided by theories such as: (1) the health belief model (HBM) (Becker & Joseph, 1988; Emmons et al, 1986; Montgomery et al., 1989); (2) social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Botvin, Baker, Botvin, Filazzola, & Millman, 1984; Evans, 1976); and (3) the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Fishbein & Middlestadt, 1989).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdul-Quader, A. S., Tross, S., Friedman, S. R., Kouzi, A. G., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (1990). Streetrecruited intravenous drug users and sexual risk reduction in New York City. AIDS, 4, 1075–1079.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abdul-Quader, A. S., Des Jarlais, D. G, Tross, S., McCoy, E., Morales, G., & Velez, I. (1992). Outreach to injecting drug users and female sexual partners of drug users on the Lower East Side of New York City. British Journal of Addiction, 87, 681–688.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adam, B. (1987). The rise of a gay and lesbian movement. Boston: Twayne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman, D. (1986). AIDS in the mind of America. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman, D. (1991). The primacy of politics: Organizing around AIDS. AIDS, 5, (suppl 2):S231–S238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ash, R. (1972). Social movements in America. Chicago: Markham.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. S. (1957). The economics of discrimination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, M. H., & Joseph, J. K. (1988). AIDS and behavioral change to reduce risk: A review. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 394–410.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Botvin, E. M., Filazzola, B. S., & Millman, R. (1984). Prevention of alcohol misuse through development of personal and social competence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 45, 550–552.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Broadhead, R. S. (1991). Social constructions of bleach in combating AIDS among injection drug users. Journal of Drug Issues, 21, 711–734.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broadhead, R. S., & Fox, K. J. (1990). Takin’ it to the streets: AIDS outreach as ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 19, 322–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broadhead, R. S., Fox, K. J., & Espada, F. (1990). AIDS outreach workers. Society, 27, 66–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bye, L. L. (1990). Moving beyond counseling and knowledge-enhancing interventions: A plea for community-level AIDS prevention strategies. In D. G. Ostrow (Ed.), Behavioral aspects of AIDS (pp. 157–170). New York: Plenum Medical Book Company.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Casriel, C., Des Jarlais, D. G, Rodriguez, R., Friedman, S. R., Stepherson, B., & Khuri, E. (1990). Working with heroin sniffers: Clinical issues in preventing drug injection. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 7, 1–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chavkin, W. (1990). Drug addiction and pregnancy: Policy crossroads. American Journal of Public Health, 80, 483–486.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coutinho, R. A., van Griensven, G. J. P., & Moss, A. (1989). Effects of preventive efforts among homosexual men. AIDS, 3, (Suppl. 1):S53–S56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, J. C. (1962). Toward a theory of revolution. American Sociological Review, 27, 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. G, & Bailey, W. (1990). Almost banning bleach. Paper presented at the 118th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. G, Casriel, C., Friedman, S. R., & Rosenblum, A. (1992). AIDS and the transition to illicit drug injection: Results of a randomized trial prevention program. British Journal of Addiction, 87, 493–498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. G, & Friedman, S. R. (1992a). AIDS prevention programs for intravenous drug users. In G. P. Wormser (Ed.), AIDS and other manifestations of HIV infection (2nd ed. pp. 645–658). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. C., & Friedman, S. R. (1992b). The AIDS epidemic and legal access to sterile equipment for injecting illicit drugs. Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, 521, 42–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. G, Friedman, S. R., Choopanya, K., Vanichseni, S., & Ward, T. P. (1992). International epidemiology of HIV and AIDS among injecting drug users. AIDS, 6, 1053–1068.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Wit, J. F. B., de Vroome, E. M. M., Sandfort, T. G. M., van Griensven, G. J. P., Coutinho, R. A., & Tielman, R. A. P. (1992). Safe sexual practices not reliably maintained by homosexual men. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 615–616.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, C. A., Joseph, J. G., Kessler, R. G, Wortman, C. B., Montgomery, S. B., & Ostrow, D. G. (1986). Psychosocial predictors of reported behavior change in homosexual men at risk for AIDS. Health Education Quarterly, 13, 331–345.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, R. J. (1976). Smoking in children: Developing a social psychological theory of deterrence. Preventive Medicine, 5, 122–127.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein, M. (1980). A theory of reasoned action. Some applications and implications. In H. E. Howe & M. M. Page (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1979 (pp. 65–116). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein, M., & Middlestadt, S. E. (1989). Using the theory of reasoned action as a framework for understanding and changing AIDS-related behaviors. In V. M. Mays, G. W. Albee, & S. F. Schneider (Eds.), Primary prevention of AIDS: Psychological approaches (pp. 93–110). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, N., Jain, S., Keddie, E., Carlson, J., Jennings, M., & Haverkos, H. (1990). Bleach is not enough: Giving IV drug users a choice of disinfectants when they share needles and syringes. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference on AIDS, San Francisco, CA [abstract S.C. 761].

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R. (1993). AIDS as a sociohistorical phenomenon. In G. L. Albrecht & R. S. Zimmerman (Eds.), Advances in medical sociology, vol. 3: The social and behavioral aspects of AIDS (pp. 19–36). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (1991). HIV among drug injectors: The epidemic and the response. AIDS Care, 3, 239–250.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Des Jarlais, D. C., & Neaigus, A. (1992). AIDS among drug injectors: The first decade. In V. deVita Jr., S. Hellman, & S. A. Rosenberg (Eds.), AIDS: Etiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. (3rd ed. pp. 453–461). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Des Jarlais, D. C., Ward, T. P., Jose, B., Neaigus, A., & Goldstein, M. (in press). Drug injectors and heterosexual AIDS. In L. Sherr (Ed.), Heterosexual AIDS. Reading, UK: Harwood Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Snyder, F. R., Shorty, V., Jones, A., Estrada, A. L., & Young, P. A. (in press). Racial differences in HIV risk behaviors among drug injectors: Multicity data. In Proceedings of the Second National AIDS Demonstration Research Conference. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Sotheran, J. L., Abdul-Quader, A., Primm, B. J., Des Jarlais, D. C., Kleinman, P., Mauge, C., Goldsmith, D. S., El-Sadr, W., & Maslansky, R. (1987). The AIDS epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics. The Milbank Quarterly, 65, 455–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Stepherson, B., Woods, J., Des Jarlais, D. C., & Ward, T. P. (1992). Society, drug injectors, and AIDS. Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Under served, 3, 73–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Sufian, M., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (1990). The AIDS epidemic among Latino intravenous drug users. In R. Glick and J. Moore (Eds.), Drug Abuse in Hispanic Communities (pp. 45–54). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Froner, G. A., Rutherford, G. W., & Rokeach, M. (1987). Injection of sodium hypochlorite by intravenous drug users. Journal of the American Medical Association, 258, 325.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gamson, J. (1989). Silence, death, and the invisible enemy: AIDS activism and social movement “newness.” Social Problems, 36, 351–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gamson, W. (1975). The strategy of social protest. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geschwender, J. A. (1964). Social structure and the Negro revolt. Social Forces, 43, 250–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geschwender, J. A. (1978). Racial stratification in America. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurr, T. R. (1969). Why men rebel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann, J. W., & Heicht, R. C. (1979). Complications in therapeutic use of sodium hypochlorite. Journal of Endodontology, 5, 160.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Logan, J. (1984). Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 660–666.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A., St. Lawrence, J. S., Diaz, Y. E., Stevenson, L. Y., Hauth, A. C., Brasfeld, T. L., Kalichman, S. C., Smith, J. E., & Andrew, M. E. (1991). HIV risk behavior reduction following intervention with key opinion leaders of population: An experimental analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 168–171.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A., St. Lawrence, J. S., Stevenson, L. Y., Hauth, A. C., Kalichman, S. C., Diaz, Y. E., Brasfeld, T. L., Koob, J. J., & Morgan, M. G. (1992). Community AIDS/HIV risk reduction: The effects of endorsements by popular people in three cities. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1483–1489.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krieger, N. (1991). The making of public health data: Political considerations and implications. Paper presented at the 119th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC., November 10–14 [session 2065].

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannheim, K. (1936). Ideology and Utopia, Trans. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, L. S., McDougal, J. S., & Loskoski, S. L. (1985). Disinfection and inactivation of the human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 152, 400–403.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McAdam, D. (1982). Political process and the development of Black insurgency, 1930–1979. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAlister, A., Puska, P., Salonen, J. T., Tuomilehto, J., & Koskela, K. (1982). Theory and action for health promotion: Illustrations from the North Karelia Project. American Journal of Public Health, 72, 43–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McBride, C., Curry, S. J., Anderman, C., Cheadle, A., Wagner, E., & Pearson, D. (1992). Testing a social ecology model to explain adolescent risk-taking behavior. Paper presented at the 120th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC [session 2002].

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J., & Zald, M. (1973). The trend of social movements in America. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeroy, K. R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. (1988). An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 351–377.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moncher, M. S., Holden, G. W., & Schinke, S. P. (1991). Review of current etiological constructs. Internationaljournal of the Addictions, 26, 337–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, S. B., Joseph, J. G., Becker, M. H., Ostrow, D. G., Kessler, R. C., & Kirscht, J. P. (1989). The health belief model in understanding compliance with preventive recommendations for AIDS: How useful? AIDS Education & Prevention, 1, 303–323.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morales, E. S., & Fullilove, M. T. (1992). “Many are called...”: Participation by minority leaders in an AIDS intervention in San Francisco. Ethnicity & Disease, 2, 389–401.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neaigus, A., Friedman, S. R., Sufian, M., Stepherson, B., Goldsmith, D. S., & Mota, P. (1990). Effects of peer culture, race, and gender on IV drug use risk reduction. Paper presented at the 118th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, New York City, October.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newmeyer, J. A. (1988). Why bleach? Development of a strategy to combat HIV contagion among San Francisco intravenous drug users. In R. J. Battjes & R. W. Pickens (Eds.), Needle sharing among intravenous drug users: National and international perspectives (pp. 151–159). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIDA Research Monograph 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newmeyer, J. A., Feldman, H. W., Biernacki, P., & Watters, J. K. (1989). Preventing AIDS contagion among intravenous drug users. Medical Anthropology, 10, 167–175.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oberschall, A. (1973). Social conflict and social movements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogburn, W. F. (1922). Social change. New York: Huebsch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ossowski, S. (1963). Class structure in the social consciousness, Trans. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paone, D., Chavkin, W., Willets, I., Friedmann, P., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (1992). The impact of sexual abuse: Implications for drug treatment. Journal of Women’s Health, 1, 149–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patton, C. (1985). Sex and germs: The politics of AIDS. Boston: South End Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patton, C. (1990). Inventing AIDS. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., Coates, T. J., Catania, J. A., Middleton, L., Hilliard, B., & Hearst, N. (1992). High-risk sexual behavior and condom use among gay and bisexual African-American men. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1490–1494.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, F. F., & Cloward, R. (1979). Poor people’s movements. New York: Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puska, P., Nissinen, A., Tuomilehto, J., Salonen, J. Y., Koskela, K., McAlister, A., Kottke, T. E., Macoby, N., & Farquhar, S. W. (1985). Strategy to prevent coronary heart disease: Conclusions from ten years of the North Karelia project. Annual Review of Public Health, 6, 147–193.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quimby, E., & Friedman, S. R. (1989). Dynamics of Black mobilization against AIDS in New York City. Social Problems, 36, 403–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, L., Veren, K., Salahuddin, S. Z., Tondreau, S., & Markham, P. D. (1986). Stability and inactivation of HTLV-III/LAV under clinical and laboratory environments. Journal of the American Medical Association, 255, 1887–1891.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, E. M. (1982). Diffusion of innovations. Third edition. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of innovation: A cross-cultural approach. (2nd ed.). New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudé, G. F. E. (1980). Ideology and popular protest. New York: Pantheon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selik, R. M., Castro, K. G., & Pappaioanou, M. (1988). Racial/ethnic differences in the risk of AIDS in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 1539–1545.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selik, R. M., Castro, K. G., Pappaioanou, M., & Buehler, J. W. (1989). Birthplace and the risk of AIDS among Hispanics in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 79, 836–839.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sennett, R., & Cobb, J. (1972). The hidden injuries of class. New York: Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuts, R. (1987). And the band played on: Politics, people and the AIDS epidemic. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sotheran, J. L. (1991). HIV risk and social relationships among IV drug users. Paper presented at the Annual Workshop on Psychosocial Factors in Population Change, Washington, DC., March 19-20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stall, R., Burrett, D., Bye, L. L., Catania, J. A., Frutchey, C., Henne, J., Lemp, G., & Paul, J. (1992). A comparison of younger and older gay men’s HIV risk-taking behaviors: The communications technologies 1989 cross-sectional survey. Journal of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 5, 682–687.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turshen, M. (1989). The politics of public health. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, J. K., Cheng, Y., Segal, M., Lorvick, J., Case, P., & Carlson, J. (1990). Epidemiology and prevention of HIV in intravenous drug users in San Francisco, 1986–1989. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on AIDS, San Francisco, CA [abstract F.C.106].

    Google Scholar 

  • White, H. R. (1992). Early problem behavior and later drug problems. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 412–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, H. R., & Labouvie, E. W. (1989). Towards the assessment of adolescent problem drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 30–37.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiebel, W. (1988). Combining ethnographic and epidemiologic methods for targeted AIDS interventions: The Chicago Model. In R. J. Battjes & R. W. Pickens (Eds.), Needle sharing among intravenous drug abusers: National and international perspectives (pp. 137–150). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIDA Research Monograph 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiebel, W. (1990). Identifying and gaining access to hidden populations. In E. Y. Lambert (Ed.), The collection and interpretation of data from hidden populations (pp. 4–11). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIDA Research Monograph 98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiebel, W. (1991). Factors influencing personal decisions to use heroin. In D. Forster & J. Salloway (Eds.), The socio-cultural matrix of alcohol and drug use: A sourcebook of patterns (pp. 367–391). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiebel, W., Fritz, R., & Chene, D. (1989). Description of intervention procedures utilized by the AIDS Outreach Intervention Projects—University of Illinois at Chicago, School of Public Health. Proceedings of the Community Epidemiology Work Group: Chicago-June 1989 (Vol. 3, pp. 68–79). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, D. P. (1987). Currents of health policy: Impact on Black Americans. Milbank Quarterly, 65 (Supplements 1 & 2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Worth, D. (1989). Sexual decision-making and AIDS: Why condom promotion among vulnerable women is likely to fail. Studies in Family Planning, 20, 297–307.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Development and Research Institutes, 11 Beach Street, New York, New York, 10013, USA

    Samuel R. Friedman & Thomas P. Ward

  2. Chemical Dependency Institute, Beth Israel Medical Center, New York, New York, 10003, USA

    Don C. Des Jarlais

Authors
  1. Samuel R. Friedman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Don C. Des Jarlais
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thomas P. Ward
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, Department of Health Behavior and School of Medicine, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, and Center for AIDS Research, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama, 35294, USA

    Ralph J. DiClemente Ph.D.

  2. Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30303, USA

    John L. Peterson Ph.D.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Friedman, S.R., Jarlais, D.C.D., Ward, T.P. (1994). Social Models for Changing Health-Relevant Behavior. In: DiClemente, R.J., Peterson, J.L. (eds) Preventing AIDS. AIDS Prevention and Mental Health. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1193-3_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1193-3_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-1195-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-1193-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation