Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Batteries for Implantable Biomedical Devices pp 133–180Cite as

Lithium/Halogen Batteries

  • Chapter

Abstract

The Gibbs free energies of formation for lithium halides vary from -64.5 kcal/mol for lithium iodide to -140.7 kcal/mol for lithium fluoride. Therefore, electrochemical power sources based on the reaction between lithium and halogens offer potentially very attractive energies. In fact, lithium/halogen systems, specifically the lithium/iodine couple, have seen extensive application as the most widely used power sources for cardiac pacemakers from 1976 through the present time (1984). The basic idea behind lithium/halogen systems is rather straightforward. The anode is elemental lithium. The cathode/depolarizer is a pure or mixed halogen whose electronic conductivity has been enhanced with inert additives or reactive species. The electrolyte/separator is the reaction product formed in situ between anode and cathode as the cell is discharged. During discharge this electrolyte layer grows as the reaction products are formed and the anode and cathode materials are depleted.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. F. Gutmann, A. M. Hermann, and A. Rembaum, Solid-State Electrochemical Cells Based on Charge Transfer Complexes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, 323–329 (1967).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. J. R. Moser, Solid State Lithium-Iodine Primary Battery, U.S. Patent 3,660,163 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  3. A. A. Schneider and J. R. Moser, Primary Cells and Iodine Containing Cathodes Therefor, U.S. Patent 3,674,562 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  4. R. T. Mead, Solid State Battery, U.S. Patent 3,773,557 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  5. W. Greatbatch, J. H. Lee, W. Mathias, M. Eldridge, J. R. Moser, and A. A. Schneider, The Solid-State Lithium Battery: A New Improved Chemical Power Source for Implantable Cardiac Pacemakers, IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering, BME-18, 317–324 (1971).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. G. Antonioli, F. Baggioni, F. Consiglio, G. Grassi, R. LeBrun, and F. Zanardi, Stimulatore cardiaco impiantabile con nuova battaria a stato solido al litio, Minerva Med. 64, 2298 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. W. Greatbatch, R. Mead, R. McLean, F. Rudolph, and N. W. Frenz, Lithium Bromine Cell, U.S. Patent 3,994,747 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  8. R. McLean and W. Greatbatch, Lithium Chlorine Cell, U.K. Patent 1,566,243 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  9. W. Greatbatch, Alkali Metal-Halogen Cell Having Mixed Halogen Cathode, U.S. Patent 4,132,836 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  10. D. R. Stull and H. Prophet, Project Directors, JANAE Thermochemical Tables, National Standard Reference Data System, NBS-37, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  11. C. C. Liang, in: Applications of Solid Electrolytes (T. Takahashi and A. Kozawa, eds.), pp. 60–66, JEC Press, Cleveland.

    Google Scholar 

  12. K. Shahi, J. B. Wagner, and B. B. Owens, in: Lithium Batteries (J. P. Gabano, ed.), pp. 418, Academic Press, New York (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  13. M. Mueller, R. McLean, C. Holmes, and W. Greatbatch, Lithium-Halogen Cell Including Activated Charcoal, U.S. Patent 4,166,887 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  14. W. G. Howard, P. M. Skarstad, T. G. Hayes, and B. B. Owens, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV80–4, pp. 122–135, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  15. A. M. Hermann and E. Luksha, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV80–4, pp. 110–121, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  16. W. Greatbatch, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV80–4, pp. 63, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  17. W. Greatbatch, R. Mead, R. McLean, F. Rudolph, and N. W. Frenz, Lithium-Bromine Cell and Method of Making the Same, U.S. Patent 4,105,833 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  18. W. Greatbatch, R. Mead, F. Rudolph, R. McLean, and N. W. Frenz, Method of Making a Lithium-Bromine Cell, U.S. Patent 4,164,070 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  19. C. F. Holmes and M. Mueller, Lithium-Bromine Cell, U.S. Patent 4,147,842 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  20. A. A. Schneider, G. C. Bowser, and L. H. Foxwell, Lithium Iodine Primary Cells Having Novel Pelletized Depolarizer, U.S. Patent 4,148,975 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  21. W. Greatbatch, C. F. Holmes, and M. Mueller, in: Extended Abstracts of the Fall 1977 Electrochemical Society Meeting, Abstract 21, pp. 58–60, The Electrochemical Society, Princeton, New Jersey (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  22. K. R. Brennen and D. F. Untereker, in: Extended Absracts of the Fall 1978 Electrochemical Society Meeting, Abstract 60, pp. 165–166, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  23. K. R. Brennen and D. F. Untereker, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV 80–4, pp. 161–173, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  24. R. L. McLean and J. Bleecher, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV 80–4, pp. 207–220, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  25. G. M. Phillips and D. F. Untereker, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV 80–4, pp. 195–206, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  26. F. E. Kraus and A. A. Schneider, in: Proc. 27th Power Sources Symposium, pp. 144–147, PSC Publications Committee, Red Bank, New Jersey (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  27. G. M. Phillips and D. F. Untereker, in: Proceedings of the Symposium on Lithium Batteries (H. V. Venkatasetty, ed.), PV 81–4, pp. 303–322, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  28. A. A. Schneider, S. E. Snyder, T. De Van, M. J. Harney, and D. E. Harney, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV80–4, pp. 144–153, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  29. K. J. Jones, Lithium Iodine Batteries for Cardiac Pacemakers, Med. Electron. 72, 86–91 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  30. C. F. Holmes and J. Greenwood, in: Proc. 29th Power Sources Symposium, pp. 62–64, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  31. W. Greatbatch, R. Mead, and F. Rudolph, Lithium-Iodine Battery Having Coated Anode, U.S. Patent 3,957,533 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  32. C. F. Holmes and W. R. Brown, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV 80–4, pp. 187–194, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  33. B. B. Owens and P. M. Skarstad, in: Fast Ion Transport in Solids (P. Vashishta, J. N. Mundy, and G. K. Shenoy, eds.), pp. 61–67, Elsevier North-Holland, Amsterdam (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  34. P. M. Skarstad and B. B. Owens, in: Proc. Workshop on Lithium Nonaqueous Battery Electrochemistry (E. B. Yeager, B. Schumm Jr., G. Blomgren, D. R. Blanken ship, V. Leger, J. Akridge, eds.), PV 80–7, pp. 276–292, The Eletrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  35. W. R. Brown, W. R. Fairchild, H. A. Homung, and C. F. Holmes, in Extended Abstracts of the Fall 1984 Electrochemical Society Meeting, Abstract 174, pp. 257, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  36. J. B. Phipps, T. G. Hayes, P. M. Skarstad, and D. F. Untereker, Extended Abstracts of the Fall 1984 Electrochemical Society Meeting, Abstract 175, pp. 258, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  37. A. A. Schneider, private communication (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  38. R. T. Mead, private communication (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  39. F. E. Kraus, M. V. Tyler, and A. A. Schneider, in: Reliability Technology for Cardiac Pacemakers III. A Workshop Report (Harry A. Schafft, ed.), NBS Special Publication 400–50, pp. 35–37, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  40. W. R. Brown, C. F. Holmes, and R. C. Stinebring, in: Proceedings of the Symposia on Corrosion in Batteries and Fuel Cells and Corrosion in Solar Energy Systems (C. J. Johnson and S. L. Pohlman, eds.), PV 83–1, pp. 27–31, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  41. A. A. Schneider, J. R. Moser, T. H. E. Webb, J. E. Desmond, in: Proceedings of the 24th Power Sources Symposium, pp. 27–30, PSC Publications Committee, Red Bank, New Jersey (1970).

    Google Scholar 

  42. R. Mead, N. W. Frenz, and F. Rudolph, Lithium-Iodine Battery, U.S. Patent 3,996,066 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  43. W. Greatbatch, R. Mead, F. Rudolph, and N. W. Frenz, Lithium-Iodine Battery, U.S. Patent 3,969,142 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  44. W. Greatbatch, Lithium-Iodine Battery, U.S. Patent 3,874,929 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  45. R. Mead, W. Greatbatch, F. Rudolph, and N. W. Frenz, Lithium-Iodine Cell, U.S. Patent 4,210,708 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  46. R. T. Mead, C. F. Holmes, and W. Greatbatch, in: Proceedings of the Symposium on Cell Design and Optimization (S. Gross, ed.), PV 79–1, pp. 327–334, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  47. J. D. Jolson and A. A. Schneider, in: Proc. 30th Power Sources Symposium, pp. 185–187, The Electrochemical Society, Inc., Pennington, New Jersey (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  48. A. A. Schneider and H. D. Goldman, Lithium iodine cells for DDD and antitachycardia pacemakers, Stimucoeur Med. 11, 223 (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  49. M. C. Day and J. Selbin, Theoretical Inorganic Chemistry, Reinhold, New York, 1962, p. 98.

    Google Scholar 

  50. W. S. Holmes, in: Reliability Technology for Cardiac Pacemakers III. A Workshop Report (Harry A. Schafft, ed.), NBS Special Publication 400–50, pp. 6–9, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  51. L. D. Hansen and R. M. Hart, in: Reliability Technology for Cardiac Pacemakers III. A Workshop Report (Harry A. Schafft, ed.), NBS Special Publication 400–50, pp. 10–16, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  52. D. F. Untereker and B. B. Owens, in: Reliability Technology for Cardiac Pacemakers III. A Workshop Report (Harry A. Schafft, ed.), NBS Special Publication 400–50, pp. 17–22, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  53. E. J. Prosen and J. C. Colbert, in: Reliability Technology for Cardiac Pacemakers III. A Workshop Report (Harry A. Schafft, ed.) NBS Special Publication 400–50, pp. 23–26, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  54. C. F. Holmes, W. S. Holmes, R. L. McLean, and W. Greatbatch, in: Proc. 28th Power Sources Symposium, pp. 226–229, PSC Publications Committee, Red Bank, New Jersey (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  55. W. Greatbatch, R. McLean, W. Holmes and C. F. Holmes, A microcalorimeter for nondestructive analysis of pacemakers and pacemaker batteries, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. BME-26, 306–309 (1979).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. D. F. Untereker, The use of a microcalorimeter for analysis of load-dependent processes occurring in a primary battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 125, 1907–1912 (1978).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. C. C. Liang and C. F. Holmes, Performance and reliability of the lithium iodine battery, J. Power Sources 5, 3–13 (1980).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. C. F. Holmes and S. T. Farrell, in: Cardiac Pacing, Electrophysiology and Pacemaker Technology (G. A. Feruglio, ed.), pp. 1193–1196, Piccin Medical Books, Padova (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  59. CF. Holmes and R. C. Stinebring, in: Proceedings of the Symposium on Lithium Batteries, (H. V. Venkatasetty, ed.), PV 81–4, pp. 293–302, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  60. D. J. Gerrard, B. B. Owens, and K. Fester, in: Reliability Technology for Cardiac Pacemakers III. A Workshop Report, (Harry A. Schafft, ed.), NBS Special Publication 400–50, pp. 30–35, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  61. J. S. Kim and K. R. Brennen, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV 80–4, pp. 174–186, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  62. K. R. Brennen, K. E. Fester, B. B. Owens, and D. F. Untereker, A capacity rating system for cardiac pacemaker batteries, J. Power Sources 5, 25–34 (1980).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. R. Salem and P. Bro, Performance domain analysis of primary batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 118, 829–831 (1971).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. C. F. Holmes and D. Taub, Les piles lithium-iode: evaluation, fiabilité, et performances, Stimucoeur Med. 8, 318–322 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  65. C. F. Holmes, Powering the pacemaker, Qual. Prog. January, 21–22 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  66. C. F. Holmes, W. R. Fairchild, and R. C. Stinebring, Real time performance of lithium/iodine pacemaker batteries, Rev. Eur. Technol. Biomed. 4, 386 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  67. WD. Helgeson, in: Extended Abstracts of the Spring 1983 Electrochemical Society Meeting, Abstract No. 28, p. 44, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  68. A. A. Schneider, S. E. Snyder, and C. P. Bennett, in: Cardiac Pacing, Electrophysiology and Pacemaker Technology, (G. A. Feruglio, ed.), pp. 1203–1208, Piccin Medical Books, Padova (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  69. M. Guilleman and D. Gilet, in: Abstracts of the VIIth World Symposium on Cardiac Pacing, published in Pace 6, 366 (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  70. B. B. Owens, Pacemaker longevity projections from battery capacity, Stimucoeur Med. 9, 161–162 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  71. E. Luksha, in: Power Sources for Biomedical Implantable Applications and Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries (B. B. Owens and N. Margalit, eds.), PV 80–4, pp. 71–80, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  72. B. B. Owens, K. R. Brennen, and J. Kim, Lithium pacemaker reliability, Stimucoeur Med. 9, 371–381 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  73. M. Bilitch, R. G. Hauser, B. S. Goldman, S. Furman, and V. Parsonnet, Performance of cardiac pacemaker pulse generators, Pace 6, 670–672 (1983).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. T. G. Hayes, B. B. Owens, J. B. Phipps, P. M. Skarstad, and D. F. Untereker, in Extended Abstracts of the Spring 1983 Electrochemical Society Meeting, Abstract 764, pp. 1126, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, New Jersey (1983).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research and Development, Wilson Greatbatch Limited, Clarence, New York, 14031, USA

    Curtis F. Holmes

Authors
  1. Curtis F. Holmes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Boone B. Owens, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota, USA

    Boone B. Owens

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1986 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Holmes, C.F. (1986). Lithium/Halogen Batteries. In: Owens, B.B. (eds) Batteries for Implantable Biomedical Devices. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-9045-9_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-9045-9_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-9047-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-9045-9

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation