Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mesencephalic Structures and Tonic—Clonic Generalized Seizures

  • Chapter
Generalized Epilepsy

Abstract

A role for the brain stem in the initiation of convulsive disorders has been suspected for a long time. Clinical observations made evident that tonic-clonic generalized seizures (TCGS) resembled the picture induced by lesions in the upper brain stem (Van der Kolk, quoted by Muskins, 1928) and experiments performed in the past century revealed that mechanical or electrical stimulation of the brain stem produced convulsions (for a historical review, see Temkin, 1971, and Fromm, 1987). After the experiments of Fritsch and Hitzig (1870) that produced generalized seizures by electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex in dogs, the cerebral cortex was taken as the place of origin of the epileptic attacks. For the past hundred years, evidence of cortical versus subcortical initiation of convulsive seizures has been presented, and although there has been more clinical and experimental evidence that favors a cortical origin for the majority of the epilepsies, a renewed interest in the possible brainstem origin of some types of epilepsy, particularly the TCGS, has arisen from numerous recent experimental observations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ajmone-Marsan, C., and Marossero, F., 1950, Electrocorticographic and electrocardiographic study of the convulsions induced by cardiazol, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 2: 133–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babb, T.L., Mitchell, A.G., and Crandall, P.H., 1974, Fastigio-bulbar and dentate thalamic influences on hippocampal cobalt epilepsy in the cat, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 36: 141–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, J.L., MacDonald, J.F., Mathers, D.A., McBurney, R.N., and Study, R.E., 1981, Convul-sant and anticonvulsant pharmacology of cultured mouse spinal neurons, in: Neurotransmitters, Seizures and Epilepsy, P.L. Morselli, K.G. Lloyd, W. Löschner, B. Meldrum, and E.H. Reynolds (eds.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 49–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batini, C., Moruzzi, G., Palestini, M., Rossi, G., and Zanchetti, A., 1959, Effects of complete pontine transection on the sleep wakefulness rhythm: The midpontine pretrigeminal preparation, Arch. Ital.Biol. 97: 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batuev, A.S., Alexandröv, A.A., and Scheinikov, N.A., 1982, Picrotoxin action on the receptive fields of the cat sensory motor cortex neurons, J. Neurosci. Res. 7: 49–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann, F., Costin, A., and Gutman, J., 1963, A low threshold convulsive area in the rabbit mesencephalon, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 15: 683–690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berman, A.L., 1958, The Brain Stem of the Cat, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 195 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bremer, F., 1935, “Cerveau isolé” et physiologie du sommeil, C.R. Soc. Biol. (Paris) 118: 1235–1241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bremer, F., 1936, Nouvelle recherches dans le mécanisme du sommeil, C.R. Soc. Biol. (Paris) 122: 460–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bizzi, E., and Spencer, W.A., 1962, Enhancement of EEG synchrony in the acute “cerveau isole,” Arch. Ital. Biol. 100: 234–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodai, A., 1974, Neurological Anatomy, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, London/New York, Ch. 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning, R.A., 1985, Role of the brain stem reticular formation in tonic clonic seizures. Lesions and pharmacological studies, Fed. Proc. 44: 2425–2431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning, R.A., and Nelson, D.K., 1986, Modification of electroshock and pentylenetetrazol seizure patterns in rat following precolliculuar transections, Exp. Neurol. 93: 546–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browning, A.R., Turner, J.F., Simonton, R.L., and Bundman, M.C., 1981a, Effect of midbrain and pontine tegmental lesions on the maximal electro-shock seizure pattern in rats, Epilepsia 22: 583–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browning, R.A., Simonton, R.L., and Turner, F.J., 1981b, Antagonism of experimentally induced tonic seizures following lesions of the midbrain tegmentum, Epilepsia 22: 595–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browning, R.A., Nelson, D., Mogharreban, N., Jobe, P., and Laird, H., 1985, Effect of midbrain and pontine tegmental lesions on audiogenic seizures in genetically epilepsy prone rats, Epilepsia 26: 175–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, W.M., 1987, Electrical stimulation studies: Generalized convulsions triggered from the brain stem, in: Epilepsy and the Reticular Formation. The Role of the Reticular Core in Convulsive Seizures, G.H. Fromm, C.L. Faingold, R.A. Browning, and W.M. Burnham (eds.), Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, W.M., and Browning, R.A., 1987, The “reticular core” and generalized convulsions. A unifyed hypothesis, in: Epilepsy and the Reticular Formation. The Role of the Reticular Core in Convulsive Seizures, G.H. Fromm, C.L. Faingold, R.A. Browning, and W.M. Burnham (eds.), Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, W.M., Albright, P., Schneiderman, J., Ciu, P., and Ninchoji, T., 1981, Centrencephalic mechanisms in the kindling model, in J.A. Wada (ed.), Kindling Two, New York, Raven Press, pp. 161–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cesa-Bianchi, M.G., Mancia, M., and Mutani, R., 1967, Experimental epilepsy induced by cobalt powder in lower brain stem and thalamic structures. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 22: 525–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dow, R.S., 1965, Extrinsic regulatory mechanisms of seizure activity. Epilepsia 6: 122–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esplin, D.W., and Zablocka-Esplin, B., 1969, Mechanism of action of convulsants, in: H.H. Jasper, A.A. Ward, and A. Pope (eds.) Basic Mechanisms of the Epilepsies, Little Brown, Boston, pp. 167–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faingold, C.L., 1978, Brain stem reticular formation mechanisms subserving generalized seizures: Effects of convulsants and anticonvulsants on sensory evoked responses, Progr. Neuro-psychopharmacol. 2: 501–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faingold, C.L., and Caspary, D.M., 1987, Effect of convulsant drugs on the brain stem, in G.H. Fromm, C.L. Faingold, R.A. Browning, and W.M. Burnham (eds.), Epilepsy and the Reticular Formation. The Role of the Reticular Core in Convulsive Seizures, Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 39–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faingold, C.L., and Stittsworth, J.D., 1977, Alteration of single unit response to visual stimuli in the reticular formation and lateral geniculate body by pentylenetetrazol, Neuros ci. Abstr. 3: 139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernández Guardiola, A., and Ayala, F., 1971, Red nucleus fast activity and signs of paradoxical sleep appearing during the extinction of experimental seizures, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 30: 547–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández Guardiola, A., Contreras, C.M., Calvo, J.M., Ayala, F., Brailosvsky, S., Solis, H., and Salgado, A., 1972, Changes in spontaneous neuronal firing in cerebellum, red nucleus and raphe nuclear complex during convulsive activity, in I.S. Cooper, M.R. Klan, R.S. Snider (eds.) The Cerebellum: Epilepsy and Behavior, New York, Plenum Press, pp. 19–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, D.A., and Ferris, G.S., 1956, Effect of mesencephalic lesions on metrazol induced cortical activity, Neurology 6: 173–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fritsch, G., and Hitzig, E., 1870, über die electri-sche Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns. Arch. Anat. Physiol. Wiss. Med. 37: 300–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fromm, G.H., 1987, The brain stem and convulsions. A historical review, in G.H. Fromm, C.L. Faingold, R.A. Browning, and W.M. Burnham (eds.) Epilepsy and the Reticular Formation: The Role of the Reticular Core in Convulsive Seizures Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fromm, G.H., Terrence, C.F., and Chattha, A.S., 1984, Differential effect of antiepileptic and non-antiepileptic drugs on the reticular formation, Life Sci. 35: 2665–2673.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garant, D.S., and Gale, K., 1983, Lesions of substantia nigra protect against experimentally induced seizures, Brain Res. 273: 156–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gastaut, H., Naquet, R., and Fischer-Williams, M., 1958, The physiopathology of grand mal seizures generalized from the start, J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 127: 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gloor, P., 1979, Generalized epilepsy with spike and wave discharge, a reinterpretation of its elec-trographic and clinical manifestations, Epilepsia 20: 575–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gloor, P., and Testa, G., 1974, Generalized penicillin epilepsy in the cat; effects of intracarotid and intervertebral pentylenetetrazol and amobarbital injections, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 35: 499–515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harabaugh, R.E., and Wilson, D.H., 1982, Telen-cephalic theory of generalized epilepsy. Observations in split brain patients, Neurosurgery 10: 725–732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi, T., 1953, The efferent pathway of epileptic seizures for the face following cortical stimulation differs from that for limbs, Jpn. J. Physiol. 3: 306–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutton, J.T., Frost, J.D., and Foster, J., 1972, The influence of the cerebellum in cat penicillin epilepsy, Epilepsia 13: 401–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iadarola, M.J., and Gale, K., 1982, Substantia nigra site of anticonvulsant activity mediated by gamma-aminobutyric acid, Science 218: 1237–1240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jasper, H.H., 1969, Mechanisms of propagation. Extracellular studies, in H.H. Jasper, A.A. Ward, and A. Pope (eds.) Basic Mechanisms of the Epilepsies, Little Brown, Boston, pp. 421–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jinnai, D., Mogami, H., Mukawa, J., Iwata, Y., and Kobayashi, K., 1969, Effect of brain stem lesions on metrazol induced seizures in cats, Electroen-cephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 27: 404–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kesner, R.P., 1966, Subcortical mechanisms of audiogenic seizures, Exp. Neurol. 15: 192–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreindler, A., 1965, Arrest of epileptic attack, Progr. Brain Res. 19: 160–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreindler, A., Zuckermann, E., Steriade, M., and Chimion, J., 1958, Electroclinical features of convulsions induced by stimulation of brain stem, J. Neurophysiol. 21: 430–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsley, D.B., Schreiner, L.H., and Magoun, H.W., 1949, An electromyographic study of spasticity, J. Neurophysiol. 12: 197–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, A.E., and Sterman, M.B., 1975, Effect of forebrain lesion on the polycyclic sleep-wake patterns in cat, Exp. Neurol. 46: 368–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magistris, M.R., Mauradian, M.S., and Gloor, P., 1988, Generalized convulsions induced by pentylenetetrazol in the cat: Participation of forebrain stem and spinal cord, Epilepsia 29(4): 379–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magoun, H.W., 1958, The Waking Brain, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 64–78.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Magoun, H.W., and Rhines, R., 1946, An inhibitory mechanisms in the bulbar reticular formation, J. Neurophysiol. 9: 165–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magoun, H.W., and Rhines, R., 1947, Spasticity. The Stretch Reflex and Extrapyramidal Systems, Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, IL, pp. VII–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, J.D., Galloway, M.T., Regisbes, L.C., and Shin, C., 1984, Evidence implicating substantia nigra in regulation of kindled seizure threshold. J. Neurosci. 4: 2410–2417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muskins, L.J.J., 1928, Epilepsia: Comparative Pathogenesis, Symptoms, Treatment, Balliere Tindall and Cox: London, pp. 126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, R.D., 1970, An improved push-pull cannula system for perfusing an isolated region of the brain, Physiol. Behau. 5: 243–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicoll, R.A., and Padjen, A., 1976, Pentylenetetrazol, an antagonist of GABA at primary afférents of the isolated frog spinal cord, Neuropharmacology 15: 69–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ninchoji, T., Burnham, V.W., and Livingston, K.E., 1981, Effect of lesions on cortical generalized seizures in the kindled rat. Spinal transection, Exp. Neurol. 73: 642–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyberg-Hansen, R., 1965, Sites and mode of termination of reticulo-spinal fibers in the cat. An experimental study with silver impregnation, J. Comp. Neurol. 124: 71–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellmar, T.C., and Wilson, W.A., 1977, Synaptic mechanisms of pentylenetetrazol: Selectivity for chloride conductance, Science 197: 912–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penfield, W., and Kristiansen, K., 1957, Epileptic seizure patterns. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp. 16–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pompeiano, O., and Hoshino, K., 1976, Central control of posture: Reciprocal discharges by two pontine neuronal groups leading to suppression of descerebrate rigidity, Brain Res. 116: 131–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puizillout, J.J., Foutz, A.S., and Ternaux, J.P., 1974, Les stades de sommeil de la préparation “encéphale isolé”. II. Phases paradoxales. Leur déclenchement par la stimulation des afférences baroceptives, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 37: 577–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raines, A., and Anderson, R.J., 1976, Effects of acute cerebellectomy on maximal electroshock seizures and anticonvulsant efficacy of diazepam in the rat, Epilepsia 17: 177–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin, E.A., 1964, Some relationships of induced seizures patterns to clinical findings in epileptic patients, Epilepsia 5: 21–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin, E.A., Onuma, T., Wasson, S., Forzak, J., and Rodin, M., 1971, Neurophysiological mechanisms involved in nonfocal grand mal seizures induced by metrazol and megemide, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 30: 62–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, J.E., and Lindsley, D.B., 1973, The nonspecific mediothalamic frontocortical system: Its influence on electrocortical activity and behavior, in: K.H. Pribram and A.R. Luria (eds.) Psycho-physiology of Frontal Lobes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 185–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sprague, J. M., and Chambers, W. W., 1954, Control of posture by reticular formation and cerebellum in intact anesthetized and unanesthetized and in the decerebrated cat, Am. J. Physiol. 176: 52–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steriade, M., 1969, Ascending control of motor cortex responsiveness, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 26: 25–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, E.W., 1972, Systemic chemical convulsants and metabolic derangements, in D.P. Purpura, K.J. Penry, D.B. Tower, M.D. Woodbury, and R.D. Walter, (eds.), Experimental Models of Epilepsy, Raven Press, New York, pp. 407–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, K., and Mishima, D., 1953, The localization of the center dealing with the tonic extensor seizure of electroshock, Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 3: 6–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Temkin, O., 1971, The Falling Sickness. A History of Epilepsy from Greeks to the Beginning of Modern Neurology, 2nd ed., Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, pp. 467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle, W.W., and Elliot, W.H., 1969, Electro-graphic and behavioral study of convulsants in the cat, Anesthesiology 30: 42–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco, M., Estrada-Villaneuva, F., and Machado, J., 1975, Specific and nonspecific multiple unit activities during the onset of pentylenetetrazol seizures. I. Intact animals. Epilepsia 16: 207–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco, M., Maldonado, H., and Estrada-Villanueva, F., 1976, Specific and nonspecific multiple unit activities during the onset of pentylenetetrazol seizures. II. Acute lesions interrupting nonspecific system connections, Epilepsia 17: 461–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco, M., Maldonado, H., Romo, R., and Estrada-Villanueva, F., 1979, Specific and nonspecific multiple unit activities during the onset of pentylenetetrazol seizures. III. Animals with ablations of the cerebral cortex, Epilepsia 20: 635–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco, M., and Romo, R., 1980, Specific and nonspecific multiple unit activities during pentylenetetrazol seizures. I. Animals with “encephale isole,” Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 49: 600–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco M., and Romo, R., 1981, Specific and nonspecific multiple unit activities during pentylenetetrazol seizures in animals with pretrigeminal brain stem transections, Exp. Neurol. 74: 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco M., and Romo, R., 1982, Specific and nonspecific multiple unit activities during pentylenetetrazol seizures in animals with mesencephalic transections, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 53: 289–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco M., and Romo, R., 1983, Push-pull perfusion of pentylenetetrazol in the brain stem of “encephale isole” cats, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 56: 521–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, F., Velasco M., Pacheco, T., and Márques, I., 1985, Comparative effects of topical perfusions of pentylenetetrazol in the mesencephalon and cerebral cortex of cats, Exp. Neurol. 87: 533–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, M., Velasco F., Romo, R., and Estrada-Villanueva, F., 1981, charbachol push-pull perfusion in the reticular formation effect on contiguous multiple unit activity and other sleep-walking parameters in cats, Exp. Neurol. 72: 318–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villablanca, J., 1965, The electrocorticogram in the chronic cerveau isolè cat, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 19: 576–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wada, J.A., and Sato, M., 1975, Effects of unilateral lesion in the midbrain reticular formation on kindled amygdaloid convulsions in cats, Epilepsia 16: 693–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, D.S., and Buchwald, J.S., 1965, A technique for recording and integrating multiple unit activity simultaneously with EEG in chronic animals, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 19: 190–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yarowski, P.J., and Carpenter, D.O., 1978, A comparison of similar ionic responses to α-aminobutyric acid and acetylcholine, J. Neurophysiol. 41: 531–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zernicki, B., 1974, Isolated cerebrum of the pretrigeminal cat, Arch. Ital. Biol. 112: 350–371.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. F. Velasco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M. Velasco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Montreal Neurological Institute, Department of Neurophysiology, McGill University, H3A 2B4, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

    Massimo Avoli M.D., Ph.D.  & Pierre Gloor Ph.D.  & 

  2. Department of Physiology, University of Patras Medical School, 261 10, Patras, Greece

    George Kostopoulos M.D., Ph.D.

  3. Laboratoire de Physiologie Nerveuse, CNRS, F-91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

    Robert Naquet M.D.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1990 Birkhäuser Boston, Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Velasco, F., Velasco, M. (1990). Mesencephalic Structures and Tonic—Clonic Generalized Seizures. In: Avoli, M., Gloor, P., Kostopoulos, G., Naquet, R. (eds) Generalized Epilepsy. Birkhäuser Boston. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-6767-3_26

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-6767-3_26

  • Publisher Name: Birkhäuser Boston

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-6769-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-6767-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation