Abstract
Widespread adoption of the new insecticides in American agriculture was essentially complete by the early 1950s, but it was not uncontested. Safety to humans and other species constituted a recognized problem from the beginning, but the exact nature and magnitude of the threats continues to be a subject for bitter debate. A second sort of problem emerged almost simultaneously with the introduction of the new insecticides. Are they a stable technological tool? Resistance of insects to the poisons and the destruction of natural enemies of insect pests threatened to unleash the tremendous reproductive power of pest species in a way that would render the insecticides useless or worse in the eyes of their users.
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Reference Notes
Roger Conant, No joy in an insect-free world, Entomol. News 55 (Dec. 1944):258–259. Discovery of DDT residues in milk was viewed with particular alarm by both medical personnel and entomologists because of milk’s importance as a food for infants. Entomologists learned by 1947 that direct treatment of cows with DDT for fly control caused residues to appear in milk; further investigation indicated that mere treatment of barn walls led to the residue problem. The USD A recommended against use of DDT around dairy animals, and newspaper publicity brought the problem to the public.
[See testimony of F. C. Bishopp before the Delaney Committee (U.S. Congress, House Select Committee to Investigate the Use of Chemicals in Food Products, Chemicals in Food Products, Hearings on H. Res. 323, 81st Congress, 2nd sess., 1951, pp. 387, 409, 521–522, 527–528)
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The series “Correspondence Relating to Bureau Programs and Plans, 1930–1951,” General Administrative Records, Record Group 7, National Archives (RG7NA), contains reports of conferences and meetings between the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine (BEPQ), USDA, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, and the chemical industry on the problems posed by toxic residues; BEPQ’s Fred C. Bishopp was clearly concerned about the problem. Edward F. Knipling of the BEPQ argued for more tests on the chronic toxicity of insecticides to livestock in 1948 (E.F. Knipling to P.N. Annand, Aug. 3, 1948, RG7NA). Bishopp (Asst. Chief of BEPQ) agreed (F.C. Bishopp, office memo., Aug. 3, 1948, RG7NA).
Thomas R. Dunlap provides a critical review of the knowledge on toxicological hazards in the period 1945–1950 [DDT: Scientists, Citizens and Public Policy, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Wise, 1975, pp. 72–75 (hereafter cited as Dunlap, DDT)].
Results of studies on insecticides during the late 1940s reflected the ambivalent attitude in the scientific community towards DDT. The compound at 5 lb. per acre caused definite wildlife losses while losses from 1 lb. per acre were much smaller or undetectable. The seriousness of losses at either dose remained controversial. Those who expressed concern were for the most part employees at the Fish and Wildlife Service. [See Clarence Cottam, DDT and its effects on fish and wildlife, J. Econ. Entomol. 39 (1946): 44–52
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Whorton, Before Silent Spring, pp. 246–249.
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F. C. Bishopp to Bailey D. Pepper, Mar. 30, 1951, RG7NA; S. A. Rohwer to Stanley B. Freeborn, Nov. 23, 1949, RG7NA.
It is interesting to note that the USDA did not have a uniform opinion on the need for new regulations. Bishopp testified that no new laws were needed, but E. L. Griffen (assistant chief, Insecticide Division, Production and Marketing Administration) believed that the manufacturer should have to prove his product safe and effective before registration (Chemicals, pp. 558–559).
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Dunlap, DDT, pp. 150–155.
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W. J. Darby, Silence, Miss Carson, Chem. Eng. News 40 (Oct. 5, 1962): 60, 62–63.
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Personal interviews with Carl B. Huffaker (Mar. 17–18, 1977), Paul DeBach (Mar. 22–23, 1977), and L. D. Newsom (June 1–2, 1978). Robert L. Metcalf recalled he had been shocked by Carson’s criticisms but reluctantly came to believe she had served a useful purpose (recorded in The Insect Alternative, NOVA series, WGBH, Boston, 1978, pp. 4–5).
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F. H. Babers and J. J. Pratt, Jr., argued that priority for noting resistance really belonged to J. B. Smith, The influence of environment on the life history of insects, Gard. and For. 10 (1897): 334. The recognition of resistance as an important phenomenon, however, occurred in ignorance of Smith’s work. Melander deserves the credit for stimulating interest in the subject among professional entomologists.
See F. H. Babers and J. J. Pratt, Jr., Development of Insect Resistance to Insecticides—II, Bur. of Entomol. and PI. Quar.E-818, May, 1951.
For a review, see H. J. Quayle, The increase in resistance in insects to insecticides, J. Econ. Entomol. 36 (1943): 493–500 (hereafter cited as Quayle, Increase).
A. M. Boyce, C. O. Persing, and C. S. Barnhart, The resistance of citrus thrips to tartar emetic-sucrose treatment, J. Econ. Entomol. 35 (1942): 790–791.
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H. J. Quayle, The development of resistance to hydrocyanic acid in certain scale insects, Hilgardia 11 (No. 5, 1938): 183–210.
Theodosius Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species, 1st ed. (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1937), 364 pp. (hereafter cited as Dobzhansky, Genetics).
Dobzhansky, Genetics, 1st ed., p. 345.
Theodosius Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1941), pp. 190–192.
R. C. Dickson, Inheritance of resistance to hydrocyanic acid fumigation in the California red scale, Hilgardia 13 (1941): 515–522.
Dobzhansky, Genetics, 2nd ed., p. 192.
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Harry S. Smith, Racial segregation in insect populations and its significance in applied entomology, J. Econ. Entomol. 34 (1941): 1–13.
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H. R. Yust and R. L. Busbey, A comparison of the susceptibility of the so-called resistant and nonresistant strains of California red scale to methyl bromide, J. Econ. Entomol. 35 (1942): 343–345.
Dobzhansk’s effort to forge a new synthesis between genetics and evolution also benefitted from Quayle and Smith’s thoughts. Garland E. Allen notes that Dobzhansky’s work was an important component in the triumph of the neo-Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection in the 1940s. The episode can be seen as an extraordinarily fruitful cross-fertilization between practical and theoretical scientists. See Garland E. Allen, Life Sciences in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1978), pp. 134–141.
Even in the 1960s, Ernst Mayr of Harvard University argued that “typological thinking,” a metaphysical presupposition, had for centuries been a barrier to understanding evolution. A typologist believes there exists an ideal “type” for every species, and variation is an illusion or imperfection in nature. The opposite metaphysical view is that of the populationist, “who believes only variation is real and abstract statistics describe an illusory ‘average’ representing the species.” The difficulty some entomologists had in accepting the reality of resistance and its origins in a population may have reflected the argument between typologists and population-ists. See Ernst Mayr, Animal Species and Evolution (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 1963), pp. 5–6.
For reviews, see: W. V. King and J. B. Gahan, Failure of DDT to control house flies, J. Econ. Entomol. 42 (1949): 405–409
F. H. Babers, Development of Insect Resistance to Insecticides, Bur. of Entomol. and PL Quar. E-776, May 1949, 31 pp.
The European cases of resistance were most intensively investigated in Italy: for a review see A. Missiroli, Riduzione o eradicazione delgi Anofeli? Riv. Parassitol. 8 (1947): 141–169.
Ezio Mosna, Su una caratteristica biologica del Culex pipiens autogenicus di latina, Riv. Parassitol. 8 (1947): 125–126
Ezio Mosna, Culex pipiens autogenicus DDT-resistenti e loro controllo con octa-klor e esaclorocicloesano, Riv. Parassitol. 9 (1948): 19–25.
E. F. Knipling, Present status of mosquito resistance to insecticides, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1 (1952): 389–394.
A. W. A. Brown, The challenge of insecticide resistance, Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 7 (1961): 6–19 (hereafter cited as Brown, The challenge).
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Anonymous, Typhus in Naples, Life 16 (Feb. 28, 1944): 36–37; Frederick C. Painton, The second battle of Naples—against lice, Reader’s Digest 44 (June, 1944): 21–22
Allen Raymond, Now we can lick typhus, Sat. Ev. Post 216 (Apr. 22, 1944): 14–15+.
National Research Council, Division of Medical Sciences, Conference on Insecticide Resistance and Insect Physiology (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1952). NAS-NRC Publ. No. 219, 99 pp., see especially p. 88.
U.S. Congress, House, Select Committee to Investigate the Use of Chemicals in Food Products, Chemicals in Food Products, Hearings on H. Res. 323, 81st Congress, 2nd sess., 1951, pp. 166–168, 189, 382, 640, 661, 774, 791, 891–892.
Brown, The challenge.
John S. Roussel and Dan Clower, Resistance to the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis Boh.), La. Exp. Stn. Circular No. 41, La. State Univ. and Agric. and Mech. College, Sept. , 5 pp. plus tables.
J. K. Walker, Jr. and R. L. Hanna, Control of boll weevils resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbons, J. Econ. Entomol. 53 (1960): 228–231.
Perry L. Adkisson, personal interview, May 30–31, 1978; Pest Control: An Assessment of Present and Alternative Technologies, Vol. 3, Cotton Pest Control (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1975), pp. 58–60 (hereafter cited as NAS, Cotton Pest Control).
U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Appropriations, Department of Agriculture Appropriations for 1959, Hearings, Part 2, 85th Congress, 2nd sess., 1958, pp. 449–466.
Brown, The challenge.
W. E. Ripper, Effect of pesticides on balance of arthropod populations, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1 (1956): 403–438.
J. W. Folsom’s study in 1925–1926 of induced outbreaks of cotton aphids by calcium arsenate is one of the first examples [Calcium arsenate as a cause of aphid infestation, J. Econ. Entomol. 20 (1927): 840–843].
Studies in the 1930s on citrus and apples indicated that those crops, too, could suffer from induced pest outbreaks [see, for example, W. L. Thompson, Cultural practices and their influence on citrus pests, J. Econ. Entomol. 32 (1939): 782–789
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One sign of the relative lack of interest in the subject before the 1930s can be inferred from L. O. Howard’s failure to cover it in his paper in 1926, The parasite element of natural control of injurious insects and its control by man, J. Econ. Entomol. 19 (1926): 271–282.
C. P. Clausen and S. E. Flanders, Harry Scott Smith, 1883–1957, J. Econ. Entomol. 51 (1958): 266–267.
Paul DeBach, personal interview, Mar. 22–23, 1977; Carl B. Huffaker, personal interview, Mar. 17–18, 1977.
C. P. Clausen, Insect parasitism and biological control, Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 29 (1936): 201–223.
Harvey L. Sweetman of Massachusetts State College prepared a similar but briefer statement for his work, The Biological Control of Insects (Ithaca: Comstock Pub. Co., 1936), 278–280.
Paul DeBach, personal interview, Mar. 22–23, 1977.
Richard L. Doutt, “The historical development of biological control,” in Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds, Paul DeBach, ed., (New York: Reinhold Pub. Corp., 1964), pp. 31–38.
Harry S. Smith and Paul DeBach, The measurement of the effect of entomophagous insects on population densities of their hosts, J. Econ. Entomol. 35 (1942): 845–847.
Paul DeBach, An insecticidal check method for measuring the efficacy of entomophagous insects,J. Econ. Entomol. 39 (1946): 695–697.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Paul DeBach, Predators, DDT, and citrus red mite populations, J. Econ. Entomol. 40 (1947): 598.
Paul DeBach, The necessity for an ecological approach to pest control on citrus in California,J. Econ. Entomol. 44 (1951): 443–447.
Ibid.
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NAS, Cotton Pest Control pp. 57–62; J. R. Brazzel and D. E. Shipp, The status of boll weevil resistance to chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in Texas, J. Econ. Entomol. 55 (1962): 941–944.
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Texas A & M Univ. Ext. Ser. and USDA, 1952 Cotton Insect Control Guide: Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas (College Station: Texas A & M Univ., 1952), pamphlet.
. 1967 was the first year Texas A & M dropped all recommendations for chlorinated hydrocarbons for control of boll weevils. See Texas A & M Agric. Ext. Ser., South Texas guide for controlling cotton insects (College Station: Texas A & M University), leaflet L-561, issues for 1964, 1966, 1967 (hereafter cited as Texas A & M, South Texas guide).
George L. Gallaher, Agricultural poisons, Tex. State J. Med. 61 (1965): 336–339.
G. L. Gallaher, Recent experiences with parathion poisoning, Paper presented at Texas Medical Assn. annual meeting, Dallas, May, 1967, 8 pp., xerox copy in possession of author.
G. A. Reich, G. L. Gallaher, J. S. Wiseman, Characteristics of pesticide poisoning in south Texas, Tex. Med. 64 (No. 9, 1968): 56–58.
Donald A. Smith and J. S. Wiseman, Pesticide poisoning, Tex. Med. 67 (No. 2, 1971): 56–59.
Perry L. Adkisson, personal interview, May 30–31, 1978; J. R. Brazzel, Resistance to DDT in Heliothis virescens, J. Econ. Entomol. 56 (1963): 571–574; J. R. Brazzel, DDT resistance in Heliothis zea, J. Econ. Entomol. 57 (1964): 455–457.
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Perry L. Adkisson, personal interview, May 30–31, 1978.
Webb, Cotton acreage.
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Dale G. Bottrell and Perry L. Adkisson, Cotton insect pest management, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 22 (1977): 451–481.
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Ibid., pp. 290–291.
H. H. Cramer, Plant Protection and World Crop Production (Leverkusen, Federal Republic of Germany: Farbenfabriken Bayer AG, 1967), p. 483.
See also Ray F. Smith and Donald J. Calvert, “Insect pest losses and the dimensions of the world food problem,” in World Food, Pest Losses, and the Environment, David Pimentel, ed. (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978), pp. 17–38.
The most complete study on the relationship between nutrition and economics is Alan Berg’s The Nutrition Factor (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Inst., 1973), 290 pp. See especially pp. 40–49.
Norman E. Borlaug, “Mankind and civilization at another crossroad,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Nov. 8, 1971, c 71/LIM/4, 73 pp.
Quoted in David Pimentel, J. Krummel, D. Gallahan, J. Hough, A. Merrill, I. Schriner, P. Vittum, F. Kozioł, E. Back, D. Yen, and S. Fiance, Benefits and costs of pesticide use in U.S. food production, BioScience 28 (1978): 772, 778–784.
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David Pimentai, P. A. Oltenacu, M. C. Nesheim, J. Krummel, M. S. Allen, and S. Chick, The potential for grass-fed livestock: resource constraints, Science 207 (Feb. 22, 1980): 843–848.
John H. Perkins and David Pimentai, “Society and pest control,” in Pest Control: Cultural and Environmental Aspects, David Pimentel and John H, Perkins, eds. (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980), p. 10.
See Richard J. Barnet and Ronald F. Mueller, Global Reach (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974), 508 pp.
Frances Moore Lappé and Joseph Collins, Food First (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1977), 466 pp.
Anonymous, A look at world pesticide markets, Farm Chemicals, Sept., 1979, p. 61.
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Perkins, J.H. (1982). Crisis. In: Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-3998-4_2
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