Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Maternal Metabolic and Endocrine Imbalances

  • Chapter
General Principles and Etiology

  • 262 Accesses

Abstract

An understanding of how maternal metabolic and endocrine disturbances alter embryonic and fetal development requires a knowledge of the control systems that exist in the mother and in the fetus and how these interact with each other. Physiologic and metabolic conditions in the perinatal period are excluded and emphasis is placed on the first half of gestation. Each topic to be covered will be introduced by a brief discussion of existing information on fetal function, the interrelation between maternal and fetal system, and clinical and experimental observations.

Supported in part by NIH grants HD005961, HD00836, and DE02918.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alexander, D. P., Britton, H. G., Nixon, D. A., Cameron, E., Foster, C. L., Buckle, R. M., and Smith, F. G., 1973, Calcium, parathyroid hormone and calcitonin in the foetus, in: Foetal and Neonatal Physiology Proceedings of the Sir Joseph Barcroft Centenary Symposium ( K. W. Cross and P. Nathanielez, eds.), p. 421–429, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U. K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, H. J., 1971, Prenatal damage in hypothyroidism, in: Hormones and Development ( M. Hamburgh and E. J. W. Barrington, eds.), p. 559–566, Appleton-Century Crofts, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaudoin, A. R., 1968, Other observations on the teratogenic action of the thyroid stimulating hormone, Teratology 1: 11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beierwaltes, W. H., Hilger, M. T. J., and Wegst, A., 1963, Radioiodine concentration in fetal human thyroid from fallout, Health Phys. 9: 1263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brentnall, C. P., 1945, Case of arrhenoblastoma complicating pregnancy, J. Obstet. Gynaecal Br. Emp. 52: 235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brinsmade, A. B., Buchner, F., and Rubsaamen, H., 1956, Missbildungen am Kaninchenembryo durch Insulininjektion beim Muttertier, Naturwissenschaften 43: 259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, E. A., Jr., Beierwaltes, W. H., Raman, G., Dodson, V. N., Tanton, J., Betts, J. S., and Stambaugh, R. A., 1959, The effect of maternal thyroid function on fetal thyroid function and development, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 19: 1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chamove, A. S., Kerr, G. R., and Harlow, H. F., 1973, Learning in monkeys fed elevated amino acid diets, J. Med. Primatol. 2: 223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, R. W., Blizzard, R. M., Hung, W., and Kyle, M., 1962a, Incidence of thyrocytotoxic factor and other anti-thyroid antibodies in the mothers of cretins, N. Engl. J. Med. 267: 376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, R. W., Kyle, M. A., Hung, W., and Blizzard, R. M., 1962b, Experimentally induced autoimmunization disease of the thyroid, Pediatrics 29: 961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chebotar, N. A., 1967, Peculiarities of action of sodium salicylate at various stages of embryogenesis in rats and the influence of certain shifts in the female organism on its teratogenic activity, Pharmacol. Toxicol. (Russ.) No. 2: 221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chernoff, G. F., 1975, A mouse model of the fetal alcoholism syndrome, Teratology 11: 14A (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chez, R. A., 1974, The development and function of the human endocrine pancreas, in: The Endocrine Milieu of Pregnancy. Puerperium, and Childhood, Report of the Third Ross Conference on Obstetric Research ( 1974 ), Ross Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio, pp. 43–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chomette, G., 1955, Entwichlungsstorungen nach Insulinschock beim trachtigen Kaninchen, Beitr. Pathol. Anat. 115: 439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comess, L. J., Bennett, P. H., Man, M. B., Burch, T. A., and Miller, M., 1969, Congenital anomalies and diabetes in the Pima Indians of Arizona, Diabetes 18: 471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driscoll, S. G., Benirschke, K., and Curtis, G. W., 1960, Neonatal deaths among infants of diabetic mothers, A.M.A. Am. J. Dis. Child. 100: 818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, A. C., and Maren, T. H., 1972, The effect of potassium metabolism on acetazolamideinduced teratogenesis,Johns Hopkins Med. J. 130: 105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farquhar, J. W., 1965, The influence of maternal diabetes on the fetus and child, in: Recent Advances in Pediatrics, 3rd ed. ( D. Gairdner, ed.), pp. 126–129, Little, Brown, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felicissimo, P. K. and De Abreu Junqueira, M., 1938, Sobre un caso de arrhenoblastoma de ovario e gravidez topica simultanea. Virilisa cao de gestante e do feto femino, Rev. Ginecol. Obstet. 32: 356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrill, H. W., 1943, Effect of chronic insulin injections on reproduction in white rats, Endocrinology 32: 449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisch, R. O., Doeden, D., Lansky, L. L., and Anderson, J. A., 1969, Maternal phenylketonuria: Detrimental effects on embryogenesis and fetal development, Am. J. Dis. Child 118: 847.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, D. A., Hobel, C. J., Garza, B. S., and Pierce, C. A., 1970, Thyroid function in the preterm fetus, Pediatrics 46: 208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankenburg, W. K., Duncan, B. R., Coffelt, R. W., Koch, R., Coldwell, J. G. and Son, C. D., 1968

    Google Scholar 

  • Maternal phenylketonuria: Implications for growth and development, J. Pediatr. 73: 560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujimoto, W. Y., and Williams, R. H., 1972, Insulin release from cultured fetal human pancreas, Endocrinology 91: 1133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garel, J. M., 1972, Distribution of labeled parathyroid hormone in rat fetus, Horm. Metab. Res. 4: 131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gellis, S. S., and Hsia, D. Y., 1959, The infant of the diabetic mother, A.M.A. Am. J. Dis. Child. 97: 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geloso, J. P., 1961, Date de l’entrée en fonction de la thyroïde chez le foetus du rat, Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. 155: 1239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giroud, A., and Rothschild, B., 1951, Repercussions de la thyroxine sur l’oeil du foetus, C.R. Soc. Biol. (Paris) 145: 525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giroud, A., and Tuchmann-Duplessis, H., 1962, Malformations congenitales. Role des facteurs exogenes, Pathol. Biol. 10: 119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gitlin, D., and Biasucci, A., 1969, Ontogenesis of immunoreactive growth hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, chorionic prolactin and chorionic gonadotropin in the human conceptus, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 29: 926.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, A. S., and Yakovac, W. C., 1964, Prevention of salicylate teratogenicity in immobilized rats by certain central nervous system depressants, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 115: 693.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, A. S., and Yakovac, W. C., 1965, Teratogenic action in rats of reserpine alone and in combination with salicylate and immobilization, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 118: 857.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, H. G., Gareis, F. J., Shepard, T. H., and Kelley, V. C., 1971, Cretinism associated with maternal sodium iodide 131I therapy during pregnancy, Am. J. Dis. Child. 122: 247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grollman, A., and Grollman E. F., 1962, Teratogenic induction of hypertension, J. Clin. Invest. 41: 710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grumbach, M. M., and Kaplan, S. L., 1973, Ontogenesis of growth hormone, insulin, prolactin and gonadotropin secretion in the human foetus, in: Barcroft Centenary Symposium in Foeta nd Neonatal Physiology ( K. W. Cross and P. Nathanielez, eds.), pp. 462–487, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grumbach, M. M., Kaplan, S. L., and Vinik, A., 1973, Human chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS) 5. clinical evaluation of hormonal excess and deficienty: role of HCS in pregnancy, in: Methods in Investigative and Diagnostic Endocrinology, Vol. 2B (S. A. Person, ed.) pp. 810184, North Holland Publishing, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagbard, L., 1961, Pregnancy and Diabetes, pp. 21–25, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. Hambaugh, M., 1966, Evidence for a direct effect of temperature and thyroid hormone on myelinogenesis in vitor, Dev. Biol. 13: 15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamburgh, M., Sobel, E. H., Koblin, R., and Rinestone, A., 1962, Passage of thyroid hormone cross the placenta in intact and hypophysectomized rats, Anat. Rec. 144: 219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heggestad, C. B., 1955, Retardation of ponderai growth in hypophysectomized fetal rats and its revention by means of an injected growth hormone, Anat. Rec. 121: 339. (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, R. E., Hamilton, H. E., and Keettel, W. C., 1952, Pregnancy in myxedema, A.M.A. Arch. ntern. Med. 90: 863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsia, D. Y., 1970, Phenylketonuria and its variants, in: Progress in Medical Genetics, Vol. 7 ( A. G. teinberg and E. G. Beam, eds.) pp. 53–68, Grune and Stratton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hultquist, G. T., and Engfeldt, B., 1949, Giant growth of rat fetuses produced experimentally by eans of administration of hormones to the mother during pregnancy, Acta. Endocrinol. 3: 365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, W. P. U., Cambell, G. D., Notelovitz, M., and Blumsohn, D., 1962, Tolbutamide and chlorpropamide during pregnancy in humans, Diabetes 11: 98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones K. L., and Smith, D. W., 1973, Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy, Lancet 2: 999.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K. L., Smith, D. W., Ulleland, C. N., and Streissguth, A. P., 1973, Pattern of malformation in offspring of alcoholic mothers, Lancet 1: 7815.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jost, A., 1957, Le problème des interrelations thyréohypophysaires chez le foetus et l’action du propylthiouracile sur la thyroïde foetale du rat, Rev. Susse Zool. 64: 821.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalter, H., 1968a, Teratology of the Central Nervous System, pp. 148–149, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalter, H., 1968b, Teratology of the Central Nervous System, pp. 150–152, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalter, H., and Warkany, J., 1959, Experimental production of congenital malformations in mammals by metabolic procedure, Physiol. Rev. 39: 69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kajihara, A., Kojima, A., Onaya, T., Takemura, Y., and Yawada, T., 1972, Placenta transport of thyrotropin releasing factor in the rat, Endocrinology 90: 592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, S. L., Grumbach, M. M., and Shepard, T. H., 1969, Gonadotropins in the serum and pituitary of human fetuses and infants, Pediatr. Res. 3: 512 (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, S. L., Grumbach, M. M., and Shepard, T. H., 1973, The ontogenesis of human fetal hormones I. Growth hormone and insulin, J. Clin. Invest. 51: 3080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, G. R., Chamove, A. S. Harlow, H. F., and Waisman, H. A., 1968, Fetal PKU The effect of maternal hyperphenylalaninemia during pregnancy in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), Pediatrics 42: 27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kind, C., 1962, Das endokrine System der Anencephalen mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Schilddruse, Helv. Paediatr. Acta 17: 244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kucera, J., Lenz, W., and Maier, W., 1965, Missbildungen der Beine und der kaudalen Wirbel-saule bie Kindern diabetischer Mutter, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 90: 901.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landauer, W., 1947, Insulin-induced abnormalities of the beak extremities and eyes in chickens, J. Exp. Zool. 105: 145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landauer, W., 1952, Malformations of chicken embryos produced by boric acid and the probable role of riboflavin in their origin, J. Exp. Zool. 120: 469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landauer, W., 1972, Is insulin a teratogen?, Teratology 5: 129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landauer, W., and Rhodes, M. B., 1952, Further observations on the teratogenic nature of insulin and its modification by supplementary treatment, J. Exp. Zool. 119: 221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langman, J., and Van Faassen, F., 1955, Congenital defects in the rat embryo after partial thyroidectomy of the mother animal: A preliminary report of eye defects, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 40: 65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lasnitski, I., 1965, The action of hormones on cell and organ cultures in: Cells and Tissues in Culture, Vol. 1 (E. N. Willmer, ed.) pp. 639–658, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, S. S., and Volk, B. W., 1963, Absence of teratogenic effect of tolbutamide in rabbits, Clin. Endocrinol. 23: 597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legrand, J., 1971, Comparative effects of thyroid deficiency and undernutrition on maturation of the nervous system and particulary on myelination on the young rat, in: Hormones and Development, ( M. Hamburgh and E. J. W. Barrington, eds.) pp. 381–390, Appleton-Century Crofts, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemoine, P., Harousseau, H., Borteyru, J. P., and Menuet, J. C., 1968, Les enfants de parents alcooliques: Anomalies observées, a propos de 127 cas, Arch. Fr. Pediatr. 25: 830.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levina, S. E., 1971, Sexual development in epiphysial and hypothalamic regulation of the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in fetal hypophyses cultured in vitro, in: Hormones and Development ( M. Hamburgh and E. J. W. Barrington, eds.), pp. 547–552, Appleton-Century Crofts, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotmar, F., 1931, Untwicklungsstorungen in der Kleinhirnrinde biem endemischer Kretinismus, Z. Neurol. Psychiatrie 136: 412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love, E. J., Kind, R. A. H., and Stevenson, J. A. F., 1964, The effect of protamine zinc insulin on the outcome of pregnancy in the normal rat, Diabetes 13: 44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Man, E. G., 1972, Thyroid function in pregnancy and infancy, G.R.C. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 3: 203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. R., 1962, A strain difference in response to the teratogenic effect of maternal fasting in the mouse, Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 4: 69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montenegro, J. E., and Castro, G. L., 1965, Fenilcetonuria materna: Anomalieas en la descendencia, Acta Med. Vene. 12: 233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nataf, B., and Sfez, M., 1961, Début de fonctionnement de la thyroïde foetale du rat, Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. 155: 1235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, E. H., 1918, The early morphogenesis of the human thyroid gland, Am. J. Anat. 24: 433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olin, P., Vecchio, G., Ekholm, R., and Almqvist, S., 1970, Human fetal throglobulin: Characterization and in vitro biosynthesis studies, Endocrinology 86: 1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orts-Llorca, F., and Galvez, J. M. G, 1958, On the morphology of the primordium of the thyroid gland in the human embryo, Acta Anat. 33: 110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Passarge, E., 1965, Congenital malformations and maternal diabetes, Lancet 1: 324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pavel, S., Dorcescu, M., Petrescu-Holban, R., and Ghinea, E., 1973, Biosynthesis of a vasotocin-like peptide in cell cultures from pineal glands of human fetuses, Science 181: 1252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, L. M., Tygstrup, I., and Pedersen, J., 1964, Congenital malformations in newborn infants of diabetic women. Correlation with maternal diabetic vascular complications, Lance 1: 1124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, D. E., and Kontaxis, N. E., 1961, Thyroid function in the fetus of the macaque monkey. II. chemical and morphological characteristics of the foetal thyroid gland, J. Endocrinol. 23: 267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, A., and Murphy, D. P., 1958, Studies in human reproduction 3. The frequency of congenital malformations in the offspring of nondiabetic and diabetic individuals, J. Pediatr. 53: 579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Runner, M. N., and Miller, J. R., 1956, Congenital deformity in the mouse as a consequence of fasting, Anat. Rec. 124: 437 (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Russel, K. P., Rose, H. and Starr, P., 1957, The effects of radioactive iodide on maternal and fetal thyroid function during pregnancy, Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 104: 560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandor, S., 1968, The influence of aethyl alcohol on the developing chick embryo, Rev. Roum. Embryol. Cytol. 5: 167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandor, S., and Amels, D., 1971, The action of aethanol on the prenatal development of albino rats, Rev. Roum. Embryol. Cytol. 8: 37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schenker, J. G., and Chowers, I., 1971, Pheochromocytoma and pregnancy: Review of 89 cases, Obstet. Gynecol. Sur. 26: 739.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scothorne, R. J., 1964, Functional capacity of fetal parathyroid glands with reference to their clinical use as homografts, N.Y. Acad. Sci. 120: 669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. H., 1961, Phenylthiocarbamide non-tasting among congenital athyrotic cretins: Fur- ther studies in an attempt to explain the increased incidence, J. Clin. Invest. 40: 1751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. H., 1965, The thyroid, in: Organogenesis ( R. DeHaan and H. Ursprung, eds.) pp. 493–512, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. H., 1967, Onset of function in the human fetal thyroid: Biochemical and radioautographic studies from organ culture, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 27: 945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. H., 1976, A Catalog of Teratogenic Agents, 2nd edition, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. H., and Andersen, H. J., 1965, Phenylthiocarbamide non-tasting among different types of cretinism and thyroid disorders, Acta. Endocrinol. Suppl. 89 45: 43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. H., Andersen, H. J., and Andersen, H., 1964, The human fetal thyroid I. Its weight in relation to body weight, crown-rump length, foot length and estimated gestation age, Anat. Rec. 148: 123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skowsky, W. R., Bashore, R. A., Smith, F. G., and Fisher, D. A., 1973, Vasopressin metabolism in the foetus and newborn, in: Fetal and Neonatal Physiology Proceedings of the Sir Joseph Barcroft Centenary Symposium ( K. W. Cross and P. Nathanielez, eds.), pp. 439–447, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U. K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. A., Oberhelman, H. A., Jr., Storer, E. H., Woodward, E. R., and Dragstedt, L. R., 1951, Production of experimental cretinism in dogs by the administration of radioactive iodine, Arch. Surg. 63: 807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smithberg, M., and Runner, M. N., 1963, Teratogenic effects of hypoglycemic treatment in inbred strains of mice, Am. J. Anat. 113: 479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smithberg, M., Sanchez, H. W., and Runner, M. N., 1956, Congenital deformity in the mouse induced by insulin, Anat. Rec. 124: 441 (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, D. E., 1960, Fetal damage due to ECT, insulin coma, chlorpromazine or reserpine, A.M.A. Arch. Gen. Psychol. 2: 606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speert, H., Quimby, E. H., and Werner, S. C., 1951, Radioiodine uptake by fetal mouse thyroid and resultant effects in later life, Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 93: 230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, R. E., and Huntley, C. C., 1967, Congenital malformations in offspring of phenylketonuric mothers, Pediatrics 40: 33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takano, K., and Nishimura, H., 1967, Congenital malformations induced by alloxan diabetes in mice and rats, Anat. Rec. 158: 303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trunnell, J. B., and Wade, P., 1955, Factors governing the development of the chick embryo thyroid. II. Chronology of the synthesis of iodinated compounds studied by chromatographic analysis, J. Clin. Endocrinol. 15: 107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuchmann-Duplessis, H., and Mercier-Parot, L., 1959, Sur l’action teratogène d’un sulfamide hypoglycemiant. Etude experimentale chez la ratte, J. Physiol. 51: 65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhoeven, A. T. M., Mastboom, H. A., VanLeusden, I. M., and Van Der Velden, W. H. M., 1973, Virulizing in pregnancy coexisting with an ovarian cystadenoma, case report and review of virilizing ovarian tumors of pregnancy, Obstet. Gynecol. Sur. 28: 597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warkany, J., 1971, Congenital Malformations: Notes and Comments, pp. 102–125, Year Book Pub-lishers, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, P., 1949, Pregnancy complicating diabetes, Am. J. Med 7: 616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zamenhof, S., Mosley, J., and Schuller, E., 1966, Stimulation of the proliferation of cortical neurons by prenatal treatment with growth hormone, Science 152: 1396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zamenhof, S., Van Marthens, E., and Gravel, L., 1971, Prenatal cerebral development: Effect of restricted diet, reversal by growth hormone, Science 174: 954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Central Laboratory for Human Embryology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98105, USA

    Thomas H. Shepard

Authors
  1. Thomas H. Shepard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. The Children’s Hospital Research Foundation and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

    James G. Wilson

  2. Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada

    F. Clarke Fraser

  3. Department of Medical Genetics, The Montreal Children’s Hospital, Montreal, Canada

    F. Clarke Fraser

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1977 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Shepard, T.H. (1977). Maternal Metabolic and Endocrine Imbalances. In: Wilson, J.G., Fraser, F.C. (eds) General Principles and Etiology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2850-6_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2850-6_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-2852-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-2850-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation