Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Electroconvulsive Shock

  • Chapter
Inhibition of Memory Formation

  • 47 Accesses

Abstract

Five major hypotheses have been advanced to explain the retrograde effect of ECS on learned responses. The earliest and most widely accepted hypothesis is that the ECS disrupts a temporally graded memory consolidation process which continues for an hour or more after learning. An alternative hypothesis is that the ECS is a highly aversive stimulus so that it acts as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in Pavlovian (classical) conditioning. A partial convulsion response, conditioned to situational cues as conditioned stimulus (CS) comes to complete with the learned response. A third alternative is that the effects of ECS given at post-learning intervals longer than a few seconds were on a non-discriminative conditioned emotional response (CER). Finally, it has been suggested that the retrograde effects of ECS were due to an increase in the strength of the avoidance response with time following an aversive simulus rather than due to the disruption of the memory process.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. ADAMS, H.E. and LEWIS, D.J. 1962a Electroconvulsive shock; retrograde amnesia and competing responses. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 55: 299–301

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. ADAMS, H.E. and LEWIS, D.J. 1962b Retrograde amnesia and competing responses. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 55: 302–305

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. ADAMS, H.E. and PEACOCK, L.J. 1965 Retrograde amnesia from electroconvulsive shock: Consolidation disruption or interference? Psychon. Sci. 3: 37–38

    Google Scholar 

  4. ADAMS, H.E., PEACOCK, L.J. and HAMRICK, D.D. 1967 ECS and one-trial learning: Retrograde amnesia or disinhibition? Physiol. and Behav. 2: 435–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. ALPERN, H.P. and McGAUGH, J. L. 1968 Retrograde amnesia as a function of duration of electroshock stimulation. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 65: 265–269

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. ARON, C., CLICK, S.D. and JARVIK, M.E. 1969 Long-lasting proactive effects of a single ECS. Physiol. and Behav. 4: 785–789

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. BANKER, G., HUNT, E. and PAGANO, R. 1969 Evidence supporting the memory disruption hypothesis of electroconvulsive shock action. Physiol. and Behav. 4: 895–899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. BARCIK, J.D. 1969 Hippocampal afterdischarges and memory disruption. Proc. Am. psychol. Ass. 4: 185–186

    Google Scholar 

  9. BARRETT, R.J., HUGHES, R.A. and RAY, O.S. 1971 ECS disruption of time-dependent processes in discriminated avoidance conditioning in rats: Incubation or consolidation? J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 74: 319–324

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. BARRETT, R.J. and RAY, O.S. 1969 Attenuation of habituation by electroconvulsive shock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 69: 133–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. BENOWITZ, L. and MAGNUS, J.G. Memory storage processes following one-trial aversive conditioning in the chick. Behavl. Biol. (In Press)

    Google Scholar 

  12. BIVENS, L.W. and RAY, O.S. 1967 Effects of electroconvulsive shock and strychnine sulphate on memory consolidation. Neuropsychopharmacology, (Proc. V. Intern. Congr. C.I.N.P., Washington, 1966) p. 1030–1034

    Google Scholar 

  13. BLACK, M. and SUBOSKI, M.D. 1971 Incubation and ECS-produced gradients in one-trial and multitrial discriminated-avoidance conditioning in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 74: 325–330

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. BOHDANECKY, Z. and JARVIK, M.E. 1966 Temporal relations of proactive ECS disinhibition. Fed. Proc. 25: 262

    Google Scholar 

  15. BOVET, D., BOVET-NITTI, F. and OLIVERIO, A. 1969 Genetic aspects of learning and memory in mice. Science 163: 139–149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. BRADY, J.V. 1951 The effect of electroconvulsive shock on a conditioned emotional response: The permanence of the effect. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 44: 507–511

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. BRADY, J.V. and HUNT, H.F. 1951 A further demonstration of the effects of electroconvulsive shock on a conditioned emotional response. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 44: 204–209

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. BRADY, J.V., HUNT, H.F. and GELLER, J. 1954 The effect of electroconvulsive shock on a conditioned emotional response as a function of the temporal distribution of the treatments. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 47: 454–457

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. BRUNNER, R.L., ROSSI, R.R., STUTZ, R.M. and ROTH, T.G. 1970 Memory loss following post-trial electrical stimulation of the hippocampus. Psychon. Sci. 18: 159–160

    Google Scholar 

  20. BUCKHOLTZ, N.S. and BOWMAN, R.E. 1972 Incubation and retrograde amnesia studied with various ECS intensities and durations. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 113–117

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. BUREŜ, J. and BUREŜOVÁ, O. 1963 Cortical spreading depression as a memory disturbing factor. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 56: 268–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. BUREŜOVÁ, O., BUREŜ, J. and GERBRANDT, L.K. 1968 The effect of an electroconvulsive shock on retention of a spatial discrimination or its reversal. Physiol. and Behav. 3: 155–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. CAREW, T.J. 1970 Do passive-avoidance tasks permit assessment of retrograde amnesia in rats? J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 72: 267–271

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. CAUL, W.F. and BARRETT, R.J. 1972 Electroconvulsive shock effects on conditioned heart rate and suppression of drinking. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 287–290

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. CHERKIN, A. 1966 Memory consolidation: Probit analysis of retrogradeamnesia data. Psychon. Sci. 4: 169–170

    Google Scholar 

  26. CHERKIN, A. 1969 Kinetics of memory consolidation: Role of amnesic treatment parameters. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 63: 1094–1101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. CHEVALIER, J.A. 1965 Permanence of amnesia after single post-trial electroconvulsive Scizure. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 59: 125–127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. CHOROVER, S.L. and de LUCA, A.M. 1969 Transient change in electrocorticographic reaction to ECS in the rat following footshock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 69: 141–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. CHOROVER, S.L. and SCHILLER, P.H. 1965 Short-term retrograde amnesia in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 59: 73–78

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. CHOROVER, S.L. and SCHILLER, P.H. 1966 Re-examination of prolonged RA in one-trial learning. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 61: 34–41

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. COONS, E.E. and MILLER, N.E. 1960 Conflict versus consolidation of memory traces to explain "retrograde amnesia" produced by ECS. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 53: 524–531

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. COOPER, R.M. and KOPPENAAL, R.J. 1964 Suppression and recovery of a one-trial avoidance response after a single ECS. Psychon. Sci. 1: 303–304

    Google Scholar 

  33. CORSON, J.A. 1965 Memory as influenced by a single electroconvulsive shock. J. Psychiat. Res. 3: 153–158

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. COTMAN, C.W., BANKER, G., ZORNETZER, S.F. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1971 Electroshock effects on brain protein synthesis: relation to brain Scizures and retrograde amnesia. Science 173: 454–456

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. DARBELLAY, D.W. and WINOCUR, G. 1971 Electroconvulsive shock, stress, and avoidance conditioning. Psychon. Sci. 23: 46–47

    Google Scholar 

  36. DAVIS, R.E., BRIGHT, P.J. and AGRANOFF, B.W. 1965 Effect of ECS and puromycin on memory in fish. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 60: 162–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. DAVIS, R.E. and HIRTZEL, M.S. 1970 Environmental control of ECS-produced retrograde amnesia in goldfish. Physiol. and Behav 5: 1089–1092

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. DAVIS, R.E. and HOLMES, P.A. 1971 ECS-produced retrograde amnesia of conditioned inhibition of respiration in cataleptic goldfish. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 11–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. DAWSON, R.G. 1971 Retrograde amnesia and conditioned emotional response incubation reexamined. Psychol. Bull. 75: 278–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. DAWSON, R.G. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1969a Electroconvulsive shock effects on a reactivated memory trace; further examination. Science 166: 525–527

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. DAWSON, R.G. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1969b Electroconvulsive shock-produced retrograde amnesia: Analysis of the familiarization effect. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 91–95

    Google Scholar 

  42. DAWSON, R.G. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1969c Familiarization and retrograde amnesia: A re-evaluation re-evaluated. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 257–259

    Google Scholar 

  43. DAWSON, R.G. and PRYOR, G.T. 1965 Onset vs recovery in the aversive effects of electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 3: 273–274

    Google Scholar 

  44. DEADWYLER, S.A. and WYERS, E.J. 1972 Disruption of habituation by caudate nuclear stimulation in the rat. Behavl. Biol. 7: 55–64

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. DELPRATO, D.J. and THOMPSON, R.W. 1965 Effect of electroconvulsive shock on passive avoidance learning with high and low intensity foot-shock. Psychol. Rep. 17: 209–210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. DENTI, A., McGAUGH, J.L., LANDFIELD, P.W. and SHINKMAN, P.G. 1970 Effects of posttrial electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic reticular formation on avoidance learning in rats. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 659–662

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. DeVIETTI, T.L. and KALLIOINEN, E.K. 1972 ECS-induced retrograde amnesia indicated by a heart- rate measure of retention. Psychon. Sci. 27: 35–36

    Google Scholar 

  48. DeVIETTI, T.L. and LARSON, R.C. 1971 ECS effects: Evidence supporting state-dependent learning in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 74: 407–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. DORFMAN, L.J. and JARVIK, M.E. 1968a Comparative amnesic effects of transcorneal and transpinnate ECS in mice. Physiol. and Behav. 3: 815–818

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. DORFMAN, L.J. and JARVIK, M.E. 1968b A parametric study of electroshock-induced retrograde amnesia in mice. Neuropsychologia 6: 373–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. DUNCAN, C.P. 1945 The effect of electroshock convulsions on the maze habit in the white rat. J. exp. Psychol. 35: 267–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. DUNCAN, C.P. 1948 Habit reversal induced by electroshock in the rat. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 41: 11–16

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. DUNCAN, C.P. 1949 The retroactive effects of shock on learning. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 42: 32–34

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. ESSMAN, W.B. Electroshock-induced retrograde amnesia in Scizure- protected mice. Psychol. Rep. 22: 929–935

    Google Scholar 

  55. FISHBEIN, W. 1970 Interference with conversion of memory from short- term to long-term storage by partial sleep deprivation. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 5: 171–175

    Google Scholar 

  56. FISHBEIN, W. 1971 Disruptive effects of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation on long-term memory. Physiol. and Behav. 6: 279–282

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. FISHBEIN, W., McGAUGH, J.L. and SWARZ, J.R. 1971 Retrograde amnesia: Electroconvulsive shock effects after termination of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation. Science 172: 80–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. GALLUSCIO, E.H. 1971 Retrograde amnesia induced by electroconvulsive shock and carbon dioxide anaesthesia in rats: An attempt to stimulate recovery. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 75: 136–140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. GALOSY, R.A. and THOMPSON, R.W. 1971 A further investigation of familiarization effects on ECS produced retrograde amnesia. Psychon. Sci. 22: 147–148

    Google Scholar 

  60. GASTAUT, H. and FISCHER-WILLIAMS, M. 1959 The physiopathology of epileptic Scizures. In: Handbook of Physiology, edited by J. Field, Washington, DC. American Physiological Society, vol.1.

    Google Scholar 

  61. GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1968a Electroconvulsive shock induced amnesia and recovery. Psychon. Sci. 10: 15–16

    Google Scholar 

  62. GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1968b The time relations of ECS induced amnesia. Psychon. Sci. 12: 169–170

    Google Scholar 

  63. GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1970 Permanence of a long temporal gradient of retrograde amnesia induced by electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 19: 257–259

    Google Scholar 

  64. GELLER, A., ROBUSTELLI, F. and JARVIK, M.E. 1970 A parallel study of the amnesic effects of cycloheximide and ECS under different strengths of conditioning. Psychopharmacologia 16: 281–289

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. GELLER, J., SIDMAN, M. and BRADY, J.V. 1955 The effect of electroconvulsive shock on a conditioned emotional response J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 48: 130–131

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. GERARD, R.W. 1955 Biological roots of psychiatry. Science 122: 255–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. GERBRANDT, L.K., BUREŜOVÁ, O. and BUREŜ, J. 1968 Discrimination and reversal learning followed by a single electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 3: 149–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. GERBRANDT, L.K. and THOMPSON, C.W. 1964 Competing response and amnesic effects of electroconvulsive shock under extinction and incentive shifts. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 58: 208–211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. GLENDENNING, R.L. and MEYER, D.R. 1971 Motivationally related retroactive interference in discrimination learning by rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol.75: 153–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. GLICKMAN, S.E. 1958 Deficits in avoidance learning produced by stimulation of the ascending reticular formation. Can. J. Psychol. 12: 97–102

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. GOLD, P.E., FARRELL, W. and KING, R.A. 1971 Retrograde amnesia after localized brain shock in passive-avoidance learning. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 709–712

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. GOLD, P.E. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1972 Effect of recent footshock on brain Scizures and behavioral convulsions induced by electrical stimulation of the brain. Behavl. Biol. 7: 421–426

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. GOLDSMITH, L.J. 1967 Effect of intracerebral Actinomycin D and of electroconvulsive shock on passive avoidance. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 63: 126–132

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. GOLUB, M.S., CHEAL, M.L. and DAVIS, R.E. 1972 Effects of electroconvulsive shock and puromycin on operant responding in goldfish. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 573–578

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. GREENOUGH, W.T. and SCHWITZGEBEL, R.L. 1966 Effect of a single ECS on extinction of a bar press. Psychol. Rep. 19: 1227–1230

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. GREENOUGH, W.T., SCHWITZGEBEL, R.L. and FULCHER, J.K. 1968 Permanence of ECS-produced amnesia as a function of test conditions. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 66: 554–556

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. GROSSER, G.S., PERCY, H.E. and PIERCE, L.E. 1971 Short footshock-electroconvulsive shock intervals and retrograde amnesia in mice. Psychon. Sci. 25: 26–28

    Google Scholar 

  78. HARTMAN, A.M. and KLIPPLE, A.G. 1966 Effect of place of electroconvulsive shock and place of recovery on conditioned avoidance. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 61: 138–140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. HERIOT, J.T. and COLEMAN, P.D. 1962 The effect of electroconvulsive shock on retention of a modified "one-trial" conditioned avoidance. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 55: 1082–1084

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. HERZ, M.J. 1969 Interference with one-trial appetitive and aversive learning by ether and ECS. J. Neurobiol. 1: 111–122

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. HERZ, M.J. and PEEKE, H.V.S. 1967 Permanence of retrograde amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock. Science 156: 1396–1397

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. HERZ, M.J. and PEEKE, H.V.S. 1968 ECS-produced retrograde amnesia: Permanence vs recovery over repeated testing. Physiol. and Behav. 3: 517–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. HERZ, M.J. and PEEKE, H.V.S. 1971 Impairment of extinction with caudate nucleus stimulation. Brain Res. 33: 519–522

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. HERZ, M.J., PEEKE, H.V.S. and WYERS, E.J. 1966 Amnesic effects of ether and electroconvulsive shock in mice. Psychon. Sci. 4: 375–376

    Google Scholar 

  85. HINE, B. and PAOLINO, R.M. 1970 Retrograde amnesia: production of skeletal but not cardiac response gradient by electroconvulsive shock. Science 169: 1224–1226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. HIRANO, T. 1966 Effect of hippocampal electrical stimulation on memory consolidation. Psychologia 9: 63–75

    Google Scholar 

  87. HOWARD, R.L. and MEYER, D.R. 1971 Motivational control of retrograde amnesia in rats: A replication and extension. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 74: 37–40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. HUDSPETH, W.J., McGAUGH, J.L. and THOMPSON, C.W. 1964 Aversive and amnesic effects of electroconvulsive shock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 57: 61–64

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. HUGHES, R.A., BARRETT, R.J. and RAY, O.S. 1970a Retrograde amnesia in rats increases as a function of ECS-test interval and ECS intensity. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 27–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. HUGHES, R.A., BARRETT, R.J. and RAY, O.S. 1970b Training-to-test interval as a determinant of a temporally graded ECS-produced response decrement in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 71: 318–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. HUNT, H.F. and BRADY, J.V. 1951 Some effects of electroconvulsive shock on a conditioned emotional response ("Anxiety") J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 44: 88–89

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. IRWIN, S., BANUAZIZI, A., KALSNER, S. and CURTIS, A. 1968 One trial learning in the mouse. I. Its characteristics and modification by experimental-seasonal variables. Psychopharmacologia 12: 286–302

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. IRWIN, S., KALSNER, S. and CURTIS, A. 1964 Direct demonstration of consolidation of one-trial learning. Fed. Proc. 23: 101

    Google Scholar 

  94. JAMIESON, J.L. and ALBERT, D.J. 1970 Amnesia from ECS: the effect of pairing ECS and footshock. Psychon. Sci. 18: 14–15

    Google Scholar 

  95. JARVIK, M.E. and KOPP, R. 1967 Transcorneal electroconvulsive shock and retrograde amnesia in mice. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 64: 431–433

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. KESNER, R.P. 1971 ECS as a punishing stimulus: Dependency on retrograde amnesia, duration of anterograde amnesia, and intensity of pain. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 74: 398–406

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. KESNER, R.P. and CONNER, H.S. 1972 Independence of short- and long-term memory: a neural system analysis. Science, 176: 432–434

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. KESNER, R.P. and D’ANDREA, J.A. 1971 Electroconvulsive shock disrupts both information storage and retrieval. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 73–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. KESNER, R.P. and DOTY, R.W. 1968 Amnesia produced in cats by local Scizure activity initiated from the amygdale. Expl Neurol. 21: 58–68

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. KESNER, R.P., GIBSON, W.E. and LECLAIR, M.J. 1970 ECS as a punishing stimulus: Dependency on route of administration. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 683–686

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. KESNER, R.P., Mcdonough, J.H. and DOTY, R.W. 1970 Diminished amnesic effect of a second electroconvulsive Scizure. Expl Neurol. 27: 527–533

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. KINCAID, J.P. 1967 Permanence of amnesia after single post-trial treatment of metrazol or electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 9: 56–60

    Google Scholar 

  103. KINCAID, J.P. 1968 Different temporal gradients of retrograde amnesia produced by metrazol or electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 11: 329–330

    Google Scholar 

  104. KING, R.A. 1965 Consolidation of the neural trace in memory: Investigation with one-trial avoidance conditioning and ECS. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 59: 283–284

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. KING, R.A. 1967 Consolidation of the neural trace in memory: ECS- produced retrograde amnesia is not an artifact of conditioning. Psychon. Sci. 9: 409–410

    Google Scholar 

  106. KING, R.A. and GLASSER, R.L. 1970 Duration of electroconvulsive shock-induced retrograde amnesia in rats. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 335–339

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. KLEMM, W.R. 1972 Theta rhythm and memory. Science 176: 1449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. KOHLENBERG, R. and TRABASSO, T. 1968 Recovery of a conditioned emotional response after one or two electroconvulsive shocks. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 65: 270–273

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. KOPP, R. 1966 The temporal gradient of RA to ECS in mice. Fed. Proc. 25: 262

    Google Scholar 

  110. KOPP, R., BOHDANECKY, Z. and JARVIK, M.E. 1966 Long temporal gradients of retrograde amnesia for a well-discriminated stimulus. Science 153: 1547–1549

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. KOPP, R., BOHDANECKY, Z. and JARVIK, M.E. 1967 Proactive effect of a single ECS on step-through performance on naive and punished mice. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 64: 22–25

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. KOPPENAAL, R.J., JAGODA, E. and CRUCE, J.A.F. 1967 Recovery from ECS-produced amnesia following a reminder. Psychon. Sci. 9: 293–294

    Google Scholar 

  113. KRAL, P.A. 1970 Interpolation of electroconvulsive shock during CS-US interval as an impediment to the conditioning of taste aversion. Psychon. Sci. 19: 36–37

    Google Scholar 

  114. KRAL, P.A. 1971a Electroconvulsive shock during taste-illness interval: evidence for induced disassociation. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 667–670

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. KRAL, P.A. 1971b ECS between tasting and illness: effects of current parameters on a taste aversion. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 779–782

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. LANDFIELD, P.W. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1972 Effects of electroconvulsive shock and brain stimulation on EEG cortical theta rhythms in rats. Behavl. Biol. 7: 271–278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. LANDFIELD, P.W., McGAUGH, J.L. and TUSA, R.J. 1972 Theta rhythm: a temporal correlate of memory storage processes in the rat. Science 175: 87–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. LEE-TENG, E. 1966 Disruption of electroconvulsive shock (ECS) of memory consolidation in chicks. Proc. Am. psychol. Ass. 1: 109–110

    Google Scholar 

  119. LEE-TENG, E. 1967 Retrograde amnesia in relation to current intensity and Scizure pattern in chicks. Proc. Am. psychol. Ass. 2: 87–88

    Google Scholar 

  120. LEE-TENG, E. 1969 Retrograde amnesia in relation to subconvulsive and convulsive current in chicks. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 67: 135–139

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. LEE-TENG, E. 1968 Presence of short-term memory after immediate post-trial subconvulsive current in chicks. Proc. Am. psychol. Ass. 3: 329–330

    Google Scholar 

  122. LEE-TENG, E. 1970 Retrograde amnesia gradients by subconvulsive and high convulsive transcranial currents in chicks. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 65: 857–865

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. LEE-TENG, E. and GIAQUINTO, S. 1969 Electrocorticograms following threshold transcranial electroshock for retrograde amnesia in chicks. Expl Neurol. 23: 485–490

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. LEE-TENG, E., MAGNUS, J.G., KANNER, M. and HOCHMAN, H. 1970 Two separable phases of behaviorally manifest memory for one-trial learning in chicks. Int. J. Neuroscience 1: 99–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. LEE-TENG, E., and SHERMAN, S.M. 1966 Memory consolidation of one-trial learning in chicks. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 56: 926–931

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. LEONARD, D.J. and ZAVALA A. 1964 Electroconvulsive shock, retroactive amnesia, and the single-shock method. Science 146: 1073–1074

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. LEUKEL, F.A. 1957 A comparison of the effects of ECS and anaesthesia on acquisition of the maze habit. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 50: 300–306

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. LEWIS, D.J. 1969 Sources of experimental amnesia. Psychol. Rev. 76: 461–472

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. LEWIS, D.J. and ADAMS, H.E. 1963 Retrograde amnesia from conditioned competing responses. Science 141: 516–517

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. LEWIS, D.J. and MAHER, B.A. 1965 Neural consolidation and electroconvulsive shock. Psychol. Rev. 72: 225–239

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. LEWIS, D.J. and MAHER, B.A. 1966 Electroconvulsive shock and inhibition: some problems considered. Psychol. Rev. 73: 388–392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. LEWIS, D.J., MILLER, R.R. and MISANIN, J.R. 1968 Control of retrograde amnesia. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 66: 48–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. LEWIS, D.J., MILLER, R.R. and MISANIN, J.R. 1969 Selective amnesia in rats produced by electroconvulsive shock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 69: 136–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. LEWIS, D.J., MISANIN, J.R. and MILLER, R.R. 1968 Recovery of memory following amnesia. Nature, Lond. 220: 704–705

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. LIDSKY, A. and SLOTNICK, B.M. 1970 Electrical stimulation of the hippocampus and electroconvulsive-shock produce similar amnesic effects in mice. Neuropsychologia 8: 363–370

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. LIDSKY, A. and SLOTNICK, B.M. 1971 Effects of posttrial limbic stimulation on retention of a one-trial passive-avoidance response. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 76: 337–348

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. LUTTGES, M.W. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1967 Permanence of retrograde amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock. Science 156: 408–410

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. MADSEN, M.C. and LUTTGES, M.W. 1963 Effect of electroconvulsive shock on extinction of an approach response. Psychol. Rep. 13: 225–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. MADSEN, M.C. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1961 The effect of ECS on one-trial avoidance learning. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 54: 522–523

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. MAGNUS, J.G. and LEE-TENG, E. 1971 The absence of residual memory consolidation following transcranial current. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 113–115

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. MAH, C.J., ALBERT, D.J. and JAMIESON, J.L. 1972 Memory storage: evidence that consolidation continues following electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 283–286

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. MAHUT, H. 1962 Effects of subcortical electrical stimulation on learning in the rat. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 55: 472–477

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. MALDONADO, H. 1968 Effect of electroconvulsive shock on memory in Octopus vulgaris Lamarck. Z. vergl. Physiol. 59: 25–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. MALDONADO, H. 1969 Further investigations on effect of electroconvulsive shock (ECS) on memory in Octopus vulgaris. Z. vergl. Physiol. 63: 113–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. MAYSE, J.F. and DEVIETTI, T.L. 1971 A comparison of state dependent learning induced by electroconvulsive shock and pentobarbital. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 717–721

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Mcdonough, J.H. Jnr. and KESNER, R.P. 1971 Amnesia produced by brief electrical stimulation of amygdala or dorsal hippocampus in cats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 77: 171–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. McGAUGH, J.L., 1966 Time-dependent processes in memory storage. Science 153: 1351–1358

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. McGAUGH, J.L., 1972 Impairment and facilitation of memory consolidation. Activitas nerv. sup. 14: 64–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. McGAUGH, J.L, and ALPERN, H.P. 1966 Effects of electroshock on memory: Amnesia without convulsions. Science 152: 665–666

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. McGAUGH, J.L. and DAWSON, R.G. 1971 Modification of memory storage processes. Behavl. Sci. 16: 45–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. McGAUGH, J.L., DAWSON, R.G., COLEMAN, R. and RAWIE, J. 1971 Electroshock effects on memory in Diethyl Ether-treated mice: analysis of the CER-incubation hypothesis of retrograde amnesia. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 6: 227–232

    Google Scholar 

  152. McGAUGH, J.L. and HERZ, M.J. 1972 Memory Consolidation. San Francisco: Albion Pub. Co.

    Google Scholar 

  153. McGAUGH, J.L. and LANDFIELD, P.W. 1970 Delayed development of amnesia following electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 1109–1113

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. McGAUGH, J.L and LONGACRE, B. 1969 Effect of electroconvulsive shock on performance of a well learned avoidance response: Contribution of the convulsion. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 177–182

    Google Scholar 

  155. McGAUGH, J.L. and MADSEN, M.C. 1964 Amnesic and punishing effects of electroconvulsive shock. Science 144: 182–183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. McGAUGH, J.L. and PETRINOVICH, L.F. 1966 Neural consolidation and electroconvulsive shock reexamined. Psychol. Rev. 73: 382–387

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. McGAUGH, J.L. and ZORNETZER, S. 1970 Amnesia and brain Scizure activity in mice: Effects of diethyl ether anaesthesia prior to electroshock stimulation. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 5: 243–248

    Google Scholar 

  158. McINTYRE, D.C. 1970 Differential amnesic effect of cortical vs amygdaloid elicited convulsions in rats. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 747–753

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. McMICHAEL, J.S. 1966 Incubation of anxiety and instrumental behaviour. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 61: 208–211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. MENDOZA, J.E. and ADAMS, H.E. 1969 Does electroconvulsive shock produce retrograde amnesia? Physiol. and Behav. 4: 307–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. MILLER, A.J. 1968 Variations in retrograde amnesia with parameters of electroconvulsive shock and time of testing. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 66: 40–47

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. MILLER, R.R. 1970 Effects of environmental complexity on amnesia induced by electroconvulsive shock in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 71: 267–275

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. MILLER, R.R. and MISANIN, J.R. 1969 Critique of electroconvulsive shock-induced retrograde amnesia:analysis of the familiarization effect. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 255–256

    Google Scholar 

  164. MILLER, R.R., MISANIN, J.R. and LEWIS, D.J. 1969 Amnesia as a function of events during the learning- ECS interval. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 67: 145–148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. MILLER, R.R. and SPEAR, N.E. 1969 Memory and extensor phase of convulsions induced by electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 15: 164–166

    Google Scholar 

  166. MILLER, R.R. and SPRINGER, A.D. 1971 Temporal course of amnesia in rats after electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 6: 229–234

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. MILLER, R.R. and SPRINGER, A.D. 1972a Induced recovery of memory in rats following electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 645–651

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. MILLER, R.R. and SPRINGER, A.D. 1972b Recovery from amnesia following transcorneal electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 28: 7–9

    Google Scholar 

  169. MISANIN, J.R. 1966 Role of fear in the facilitation and inhibitory effects of electroconvulsive shock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 61: 411–415

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. MISANIN, J.R. 1970 The effects of ECS on ECT: Implications for behavioural research. Psychon. Sci. 20: 159–161

    Google Scholar 

  171. MISANIN, J.R., MILLER, R.R. and LEWIS, D.J. 1968 Retrograde amnesia produced by ECS after reactivation of a consolidated memory trace. Science 160: 554–555

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. MISANIN, J.R. and SMITH, N.F. 1964 Role of response-linked fear on the effects of a single ECS on an avoidance response. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 58: 212–216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. MISANIN, J.R., SMITH, N.F. and MILLER, R.R. 1971 Memory of electroconvulsive shock as a function of intensity and duration. Psychon. Sci. 22: 5–7

    Google Scholar 

  174. NACHMAN, M. 1970 Limited effects of electroconvulsive shock on memory of taste stimulation. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 73: 31–37

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. NACHMAN, M. and MEINECKE, R.O. 1969 Lack of retrograde amnesia effects of repeated ECS and CO-treatments. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 68: 631–636

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. NAITOH, P. 1971 Selective impairment of pavlovian conditional responses by electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 291–296

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. NIELSON, H.C. 1968 Evidence that electroconvulsive shock alters memory retrieval rather than memory consolidation. Expl Neurol. 20: 3–20

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. OLSON, G.H. and HAGSTROM, E. 1971 Recovery experiences and the source of aversive effects of electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 22: 161–162

    Google Scholar 

  179. PAGANO, R.R., BUSH, D.F., MARTIN, G. and HUNT, E.B. 1969 Duration of retrograde amnesia as a function of electroconvulsive shock intensity. Physiol. and Behav. 4: 19–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  180. PAOLINO, R.M., QUARTERMAIN, D. and LEVY, H.M. 1969 Effect of electroconvulsive shock duration on the gradient of retrograde amnesia. Physiol. and Behav. 4: 147–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. PAOLINO, R.M., QUARTERMAIN, D. and MILLER, N.E. 1966 Different temporal gradients of retrograde amnesia produced by carbon dioxide anesthesia and electroconvulsive shock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 62: 270–274

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. PEEKE, H.V.S. and HERZ, M.J. 1967 Permanence of electroconvulsive shock-produced retrograde amnesia. Proc. Am. psychol. Ass. 2: 85–86

    Google Scholar 

  183. PEEKE, H.V.S. and HERZ, M.J. 1971 Caudate nucleus stimulation retroactively impairs complex maze learning in the rat. Science 173: 80–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. PEEKE, H.V.S., McCOY, F. and HERZ, M.J. 1969 Drive consummatory response effects on memory consolidation for appetitive learning in mice. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 49–53

    Google Scholar 

  185. PFINGST, B.E. and KING, R.A. 1967 A one-trial response-choice technique for the biological study of memory. Psychon. Sci. 8: 497–498

    Google Scholar 

  186. PFINGST, B.E. and KING, R.A. 1968 Time course of consolidation as measured by response choice behaviour. Proc. Am. psychol. Ass. 3: 327–328

    Google Scholar 

  187. PFINGST, B.E. and KING, R.A. 1969 Effects of post training electroconvulsive shock on retention-test performance involving choice. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 68: 645–649

    Article  Google Scholar 

  188. PINEL, J.P.J. 1968 Evaluation of the one-trial passive avoidance task as a tool for studying ECS-produced amnesia. Psychon. Sci. 13: 131–132

    Google Scholar 

  189. PINEL, J.P.J. 1969 A short gradient of ECS-produced amnesia in a one-trial appetitive learning situation. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 68: 650–655

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. PINEL, J.P.J. 1970 Two types of ECS-produced disruption of one-trial training in the rat. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 72: 272–277

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. PINEL, J.P.J, and COOPER, R.M. 1966a Demonstration of the Kamin effect after one-trial avoidance learning. Psychon. Sci. 4: 17–18

    Google Scholar 

  192. PINEL, J.P.J, and COOPER, R.M. 1966b Incubation and its implications for the interpretation of the ECS gradient effect. Psychon. Sci. 6: 123–124

    Google Scholar 

  193. PINEL, J.P.J, and COOPER, R.M. 1966c The relationship between incubation and ECS gradient effects. Psychon. Sci. 6: 125–126

    Google Scholar 

  194. PINEL, J.P.J., CORCORAN, M.E. and MALSBURY, C.W. 1971 Incubation effect in rats: decline of footshock- produced activation. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 77: 271–276

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. PINEL, J.P.J., MALSBURY, C.W. and CORCORAN, M.E. 1971a The incubation effect in rats: Skin resistance changes after footshock. Physiol. and Behav. 6: 111–114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. PINEL, J.P.J., MALSBURY, C.W. and CORCORAN, M.E. 1971b The incubation effect produced in rats without footshock. Psychon. Sci. 24: 109–110

    Google Scholar 

  197. PIRCH, J.H. 1969 Temporary improvement in shuttle box performance of rats after repeated electroconvulsive shock treatment. Physiol. and Behav. 4: 517–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. POSCHEL, B.P.H. 1957 Proactive and retroactive effects of electroconvulsive shock on approach-avoidance conflict. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 50: 392–396

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. POSLUNS, D. and VANDERWOLF, C.H. 1970 Amnesic and disinhibitory effects of electroconvulsive shock in the rat. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 73: 291–306

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. POTTS, W.J. 1971 The effect of different environments prior to electroconvulsive shock on the gradient of retrograde amnesia. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 161–164

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. PRYOR, G.T., PEACHE, S. and SCOTT, M.K. 1972 Escape response thresholds in rats following repeated electroconvulsive shock Scizures. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 95–99

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. QUARTERMAIN, D., MEWAN, B.S. and AZMITIA, E.C.J.N.R. 1970 Amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock or cycloheximide: Conditions for recovery. Science 169: 683–686

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. QUARTERMAIN, D., McEWAN, B.S. and AZMITIA, E.C.J.N.R. 1972 Recovery of memory following amnesia in the rat and mouse. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 79: 360–370

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. QUARTERMAIN, D., PAOLINO, R.M. and BANUAZIZI, A. 1968 Effect of electroconvulsive shock on retention of a one-trial approach and a one-trial-avoidance response in a T-maze. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 2: 121–127

    Google Scholar 

  205. QUARTERMAIN, D., PAOLINO, R.M. and MILLER, N.E. 1965 A brief temporal gradient of retrograde amnesia independent of situational change. Science 149: 1116–1118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. RAY, O.S. and BARRETT, R.J. 1969a Disruptive effects of ECS as a function of current level and mode of delivery. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 67: 110–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  207. RAY, O.S. and BARRETT, R.J. 1969b Step-through latencies in mice as a function of ECS-test interval. Physiol. and Behav. 4: 583–586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  208. RAY, O.S. and BIVENS, L.W. 1968 Reinforcement magnitude as a determinant of performance decrement after electroconvulsive shock. Science 160: 330–332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. RIDDELL, W.I. 1969 Effect of electroconvulsive shock: permanent or temporary retrograde amnesia. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 67: 140–144

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. ROBBINS, J.M. and MEYER, D.R. 1970 Motivational control of retrograde amnesia J. exp. Psychol. 84: 220–225

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. ROBUSTELLI, F., GELLER, A., ARON, C. and JARVIK, M.E. 1969 The relationship between the amnesic effect of electroconvulsive shock and strength of conditioning in a passive avoidance task. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 3: 233–239

    Google Scholar 

  212. ROBUSTELLI, F., GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1968 Potentiation of the amnesic effect of ECS by detention. Psychon. Sci. 12: 85–86

    Google Scholar 

  213. ROBUSTELLI, F, GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1969 Extinction in a passive avoidance task and its interaction with electroconvulsive shock. Psychon. Sci. 15: 139–140

    Google Scholar 

  214. ROBUSTELLI, F., GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1969b Temporal gradient of 23 hours with electroconvulsive shock and its implications. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 79–84

    Google Scholar 

  215. ROBUSTELLI, F., GELLER, A. and JARVIK, M.E. 1969c Combined action of two amnesic treatments. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 221–229

    Google Scholar 

  216. ROBUSTELLI, F. and JARVIK, M.E. 1968 Retrograde amnesia from detention. Physiol. and Behav. 3: 543–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  217. ROUTTENBERG, A. and KAY, K.E. 1965 Effect of one electroconvulsive Scizure on rat behaviour. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 59: 285–288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. ROUTTENBERG, A., ZECHMEISTER, E.B. and BENTON, C. 1970 Hippocampal activity during memory disruption of passive avoidance by electroconvulsive shock. Life Sci. 9: 909–918

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. ST. OMER, and KRAL, P.A. 1971 Electroconvulsive shock impedes the learning of taste aversions: absence of blood-brain-barrier involvement. Psychon. Sci. 24: 251–252

    Google Scholar 

  220. SCHILLER, P.H. and CHOROVER, S.L. 1967 Short-term amnesic effect of electroconvulsive shock in a one-trial maze learning paradigm. Neuropsychologia 5: 155–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  221. SCHNEIDER, A.M., KAPP, B., ARON, C., and JARVIK, M.E. 1969 Retroactive effects of transcorneal and transpinnate ECS on step-through latencies of mice and rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 69: 506–509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  222. SCHNEIDER, A.M., MALTER, A. and ADVOKAT, C. 1969 Pretreatment effects of a single ECS and footshock plus ECS on stepdown latencies of trained and untrained rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 68: 627–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  223. SCHNEIDER, A.M., and SHERMAN, W. 1968 Amnesia: a function of the temporal relation of footshock to electroconvulsive shock. Science 159: 219–221

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. SHINKMAN, P.G. and KAUFMAN, K.P. 1972 Time course of retroactive effects of hippocampal stimulation on learning. Expl Neurol. 34: 476–483

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. SPEVACK, A.A., RABEDEAU, R.G. and SPEVACK, M.E. 1967 A temporally graded ECS function following one trial learning. Psychon. Sci. 9: 153–154

    Google Scholar 

  226. SPEVACK, A.A. and SUBOSKI, M.D. 1967 A confounding of conditioned suppression in passive avoidance: ECS effects. Psychon. Sci. 9: 23–24

    Google Scholar 

  227. SPEVACK, A.A. and SUBOSKI, M.D. 1969 Retrograde effects of electroconvulsive shock on learned responses. Psychol. Bull. 72: 66–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  228. SPRINGER, A.D. and MILLER, R.R. 1972 Retrieval failure induced by electroconvulsive shock: reversal with dissimilar training and recovery agents. Science 177: 628–630

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. SPROTT, R.L. 1966 Retrograde amnesia in 2 strains of mice. Psychol. Rep. 19: 1247–1250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. SPROTT, R.L. and WALLER, M.B. 1966 The effects of electroconvulsive shock on the action of a reinforcing stimulus. J. exp. Analysis Behav. 9: 663–669

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. STEIN, D.G. and CHOROVER, S.L. 1968 Effects of post trial electrical stimulation of hippocampus and caudate nucleus on maze learning in the rat. Physiol. and Behav. 3: 787–791

    Article  Google Scholar 

  232. STEPHENS, G. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1968 Retrograde amnesia - effects of periodicity and degree of training. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 1: 267–275

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. STEPHENS, G.J. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1969 Retrograde amnesia in mice: Alteration in temporal gradients with phase-shifting of the temperature rhythm. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 3: 253–257

    Google Scholar 

  234. STEPHENS, G., McGAUGH, J.L. and ALPERN, H.P. 1967 Periodicity and memory in mice. Psychon. Sci. 8: 201–202

    Google Scholar 

  235. SUBOSKI, M.D., BLACK, M., LITNER, J., GREENER, R.T. and SPEVACK, A.A. 1969 Long and short-term effects of ECS following one-trial discriminated avoidance conditioning. Neuropsychologia 7: 349–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  236. SUBOSKI, M.D., SPEVACK, A.A., LITNER, J. and BEAUMASTER, E. 1969 Effects of ECS following one-trial discriminated avoidance conditioning. Neuropsychologia 7: 67–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  237. SUBOSKI, M.D. and WEINSTEIN, L. 1969 An ECS-maintained Kamin effect in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 69: 510–513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  238. TENEN, S.S. 1965a Retrograde amnesia from ECS in a one trial appetitive learning task. Science 148: 1248–1250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. TENEN, S.S. 1965b Retrograde amnesia. Science 149: 1521

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. THOMPSON, C.I. and GROSSMAN, L.B. 1972 Loss and recovery of long-term memories after’ECS in rats: evidence for state-dependent recall. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 78: 248–254

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. THOMPSON, C.I. and NEELY, J.E. 1970 Dissociated learning in rats produced by electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 783–786

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. THOMPSON, R. 1957a The comparative effects of ECS and anoxia on memory. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 50: 397–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. THOMPSON, R. 1957b The effect of ECS on retention in young and old rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 50: 644–646

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. THOMPSON, R. 1958a The effects of degree of learning and problem difficulty on perseveration. J. exp. Psychol. 55: 496–500

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. THOMPSON, R. 1958b The effect of intracranial stimulation on memory in cats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 51: 421–426

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. THOMPSON, R. and DEAN, W. 1955 A further study on the retroactive effect of electroconvulsive shock. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 48: 488–491

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. THOMPSON, R., HARAVEY, F., PENNINGTON, D.F., SMITH, J.Jnr., GANNON, D. and STOCKWELL, F. 1958 An analysis of the differential effects of ECS on memory in young and adult rats. Can. J. Psychol. 12: 83–96

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. THOMPSON, R. and PENNINGTON, D.F.JNR. 1957 Memory decrement produced by ECS as a function of distribution in original learning. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 50: 401–404

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. THOMPSON, R.W., ENTER, R. and RUSSELL, N. 1967 Effect of electroconvulsive shock (ECS) on retention of a passive avoidance response in rats. Psychol. Rep. 21: 150–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  250. VARDARIS, R.M. and GEHRES, L.D. 1970 Brain Scizure patterns and ESB-induced amnesia for passive avoidance. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 1271–1276

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. VARDARIS, R.M. and SCHWARTZ, K.E. 1971 Retrograde amnesia for passive avoidance produced by stimulation of dorsal hippocampus. Physiol. and Behav. 6: 131–136

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. WEAVER, T. and MAGNUS, J.G. 1969 Effects of unconditioned stimulus linked subconvulsive current in chicks. Psychon. Sci. 16: 265–266

    Google Scholar 

  253. WEISSMAN, A. 1963 Effect of electroconvulsive shock intensity and Scizure pattern on retrograde amnesia in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 56: 806–810

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. WEISSMAN, A. 1964 Retrograde amnesic effect of supramaximal electroconvulsive shock on one trial acquisition in rats. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 57: 248–250

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. WEISSMAN, A. 1965 Effect of anticonvulsant drugs on electroconvulsive shock induced retrograde amnesia. Archs int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 154: 122–130

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. WHISHAW, I.Q. and DEATHERAGE, G. 1971 The effects of hippocampal electrographic Scizures on one-way active avoidance and visual discrimination in rats: state-dependent effects. Psychon. Sci. 25: 129–133

    Google Scholar 

  257. WILBURN, M.W. and KESNER, R.P. 1972 Differential amnestic effects produced by electrical stimulation of the caudate nucleus and nonspecific thalamic system. Expl Neurol. 34: 45–50

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. WINOCUR, G. and MILLS, J.A. 1970 Aversive consequences of electroconvulsive shock. Physiol. and Behav. 5: 631–634

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. WYERS, E.J. and DEADWYLER, S.A. 1971 Duration and nature of retrograde amnesia produced by stimulation of caudate nucleus. Physiol. and Behav. 6: 97–104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. WYERS, E.J., PEEKE, H.V.S., WILLISTON, J.S. and HERZ, M.J. 1968 Retroactive impairment of passive avoidance learning by stimulation of the caudate nucleus. Expl Neurol. 22: 350–366

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. YAGINUMA, S. and IWAHARA, S. 1971 Retrograde effects of electroconvulsive shock on a passive avoidance response and conditioned emotionality (defecation) in rats. A. Animal Psychol. (Japan) 21: 1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  262. YARNELL, T.D. 1968 The effect of electroconvulsive shock on a socially motivated instrumental response. Psychon. Sci. 12: 297–298

    Google Scholar 

  263. YARNELL, T.D. and ADAMS, H.E. 1964 Electroconvulsive shock and competing responses: Stimulus generalization. J. comp, physiol. Psychol. 58: 470–471

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. YOUNG, A.G. and DAY, H.D. 1971 Effect of ECS on one-trial learning and on the partial reinforcement effect. Psychon. Sci. 24: 99–100

    Google Scholar 

  265. YOUNG, A.G. and GALLUSCIO, E.H. 1970 Failure of ECS to produce retrograde amnesia following partial reinforcement training. Psychon. Sci. 18: 175–176

    Google Scholar 

  266. YOUNG, A.G. and GALLUSCIO, E.H. 1971 Recovery from ECS-produced amnesia. Psychon. Sci. 22: 149–150

    Google Scholar 

  267. ZERBOLIO, D.J. Jnr. 1969a The proactive effect of electroconvulsive shock on memory storage: with and without convulsions. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 4: 23–27

    Google Scholar 

  268. ZERBOLIO, D.J. JNR. 1969b Memory storage: the first posttrial hour. Psychon. Sci. 15: 57–58

    Google Scholar 

  269. ZERBOLIO, D.J. JNR. 1971 Retrograde Amnesia: the first posttrial hour. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 6: 25–29

    Google Scholar 

  270. ZINKIN, S. and MILLER, A.J. 1967 Recovery of memory after amnesia induced by ECS. Science 155: 102–103

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. ZORNETZER, S.F. 1972 Brain stimulation and retrograde amnesia in rats: a neuroanatomical approach. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 239–244

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. ZORNETZER, S.F. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1969 Effects of electroconvulsive shock upon inhibitory avoidance: The persistence and stability of amnesia. Commun. Behavl. Biol. 3: 173–180

    Google Scholar 

  273. ZORNETZER, S.F. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1970 Effects of frontal brain electroshock stimulation on EEG activity and memory in rats: Relationship to ECS-produced retrograde amnesia. J. Neurobiol. 1: 379–394

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. ZORNETZER, S.F. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1971a Retrograde amnesia and brain Scizures in mice. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 401–408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. ZORNETZER, S.F. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1971b Retrograde amnesia and brain Scizures in mice: a further analysis. Physiol. and Behav. 7: 841–845

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. ZORNETZER, S.F. and McGAUGH, J.L. 1972 Electrophysiological correlates of frontal cortex- induced retrograde amnesia in rats. Physiol. and Behav. 8: 233–238

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Behavioural Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia

    M. E. Gibbs (Lecturer in Psychology)

  2. Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

    R. F. Mark (Reader in Physiology)

Authors
  1. M. E. Gibbs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. F. Mark
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1973 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gibbs, M.E., Mark, R.F. (1973). Electroconvulsive Shock. In: Inhibition of Memory Formation. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2061-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2061-6_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-2063-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-2061-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation