Introduction

Abstract

Despite laws in every state mandating universal free instruction for children entering public school, millions of students who require special education have been excluded from the programs they need. Although formal special education classes began almost eighty years ago, they were often of little value to their intended beneficiaries. Classified as “feebleminded,” “imbeciles,” or worse, mentally and physically handicapped children were segregated in rooms apart from the rest of the school population, received inferior educational services, and were very often institutionalized. Other such children were denied access to educational programs entirely.