Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Challenges in Insect Conservation: Managing Fluctuating Populations In Disturbed Habitats

  • Chapter
Conservation Biology

Abstract

The vast majority of the world’s species are insects (at least 80%; Mawdsley and Stork 1995). Their importance is overwhelming by almost any measure. For example, insects and other arthropods contribute substantially to standing biomass; 1,000 kg/ha is an estimate for the United States (Pimentel et al. 1980). In most terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems they play critical roles as prey, predators, herbivores and pollinators (Free 1970; Debach and Rosen 1991; Kellert 1993; Lloyd and Barrett 1996). Indeed, in one of the first issues of the Society for Conservation Biology’s journal, E.O. Wilson (1987) called insects “the little things that run the world.” Because they comprise the majority of the earth’s biodiversity, insects should be considered pivotal in conservation efforts (Kim 1993). Unfortunately, an alarmingly small percent of our conservation literature focusses on insect issues. For example, in 1993, 1994 and 1995, the journals Ecological Applications, Conservation Biology, and Biological Conservation published 1,070 articles with only 62 related to insect issues and still fewer related to conservation of declining insect populations. Thus, only 6% of our conservation literature is aimed at 80% of our planet’s biodiversity. This neglect of insect conservation cannot be justified on the basis of insects not being endangered. In Britain where the biodiversity is relatively well-documented, approximately 22,500 insect species occur; 43 insects are believed to have gone extinct between 1900 and 1987 (Hambler and Speight 1996). The number of insect species believed extinct in Britain is over eight times that of number of extinct vertebrates, and over three times that of flowering plants (Hambler and Speight 1996). Thus our goal is this chapter is to highlight some of the problems associated with insect conservation. While the issues we address are not unique to insects, they are particularly problematic in insect conservation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Literature Cited

  • Abele, L.G. and W.K. Patton. 1976. The size of coral heads and the community biology of associated decapod crustaceans. Journal of Biogeography 3:5–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altieri, M.A. 1991. Increasing biodiversity to improve insect pest management in agroecosystems. In The biodiversity of microorganisms and invertebrates: its role in sustainable agriculture, ed. D.L. Hawksworth, 165–182. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alverson, E.R. 1993. Assessment of proposed wetland mitigation areas in west Eugene. Report to the Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. 1995. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: Review of plant and animal taxa that are candidates for listing as endangered or threatened species. Federal Register 61(40):7596-7613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armbruster, P. and R. Lande. 1993. A population viability analysis for African Elephant: How big should reserves be? Conservation Biology 7:602–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnosky, C.W., P.M. Anderson, and P.J. Bartlein. 1987. The northwestern U.S. during déglaciation: Vegetational history and paleoclimatic implications. In North America and adjacent oceans during the last déglaciation: The Geology of North America, eds. W.F. Ruddiman and H.E. Wright, Jr., 289–321. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bassett, C. and K.H. Miers. 1984. Scientific reserves in state forests. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 14:29–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berenbaum, M.R. 1995. Bugs in the system. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, C.C. and J.T. Wiebes. 1992. African fig trees and fig wasps. New York: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berglund, B.E. 1991. The cultural landscape during 6000 years in southern Sweden—the Ystad Project: The project—background, aims and organization. Ecological Bulletins 41:13–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bierzychudek, P. 1981. Pollinator limitation of plant reproductive effort. American Naturalist 117:838–840.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackstock, T.H., J.P. Stevens, E.A. Howe and D.P. Stevens. 1995. Changes in the extent and fragmentation of heathland and other semi-natural habitats between 1920-22 and 1987-88 in the Llyn Peninsula, Wales, UK. Biological Conservation 72:33–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bodenheimer, F.S. 1951. Insects as human food. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk.

    Google Scholar 

  • Booij, C.J.H. and J. Noorlander. 1992. Farming systems and insect predators. Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment 40:125–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, S.R. and H. Riedl. 1996. Diflubenzuron-based management of the pear pest complex in commercial orchards of the Hood River Valley in Oregon. Journal of Economic Entomology 89:621–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borror, DJ., C.A. Triplehorn, and N.F. Johnson. 1989. An introduction to the study of insects. 6th ed. San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. 1986. Strategies of Indian burning in the Willamette valley. Canadian Journal of Anthropology 5:65–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briese, D.T. 1982. The effect of ants on the soil of a semi-arid saltbrush habitat. Insectes Sociaux 29:375–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooke, M.D.L., D.R. Lees, and J.M. Lawman. 1985. Spot distribution in the meadowbrown butterfly, Maniola jurtina L. (Lepidoptera: Satyridae): South Welsh populations. Biological Journal of the Linnaen Society 24:337–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J.H. 1978. Mammals on mountaintops: Nonequilibrium insular biogeography. American Naturalist 105:467–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caltagirone, L.E. 1981. Landmark examples in classical biological control. Annual Review of Entomology 26:213–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cappuccino, N. and P. Kareiva. 1985. Coping with a capricious environment: A population study of a rare peirid butterfly. Ecology 66:152–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carruthers, R.I. and J.A. Onsager. 1993. Perspective on the use of exotic natural enemies for biological control of pest grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Environmental Entomology 22:885–903.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, R. 1962. Silent spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caswell, H. 1989. Matrix population models. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, S.L. 1990. Insect natural enemies of yellow starthistle in southern Europe and the selection of candidate biological control agents. Environmental Entomology 19:1882–1888.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coats, J.R. 1994. Risks from natural versus synthetic insecticides. Annual Review of Entomology 39:489–515.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J.E., K. Schoenly, K.L. Heong, H. Justo, G. Arida, A.T. Barrion, and J.A. Litsinger. 1994. A food web approach to evaluating the effect of insecticide spraying on insect pest population dynamics in a Philippine irrigated rice ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology 31:747–763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, N.M. and J.A. Thomas, eds. 1991. The conservation of insects and their habitats. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compton, S.G., S.J. Ross, and I.W.B. Thornton. 1994. Pollinator limitation of fig tree reproduction on the island of Anak Krakatau (Indonesia). Biotropica 26:180–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, D.G. 1984. Principles of ecological biogeography and criteria for reserve design. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 117:629–638.

    Google Scholar 

  • Debach, P. and B. Bartlett. 1951. Effects of insecticides on biological control of insect pests of citrus. Journal of Economic Entomology 44:372–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Debach, P. and D. Rosen. 1991. Biological control by natural enemies. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Decsimon, H. and M. Napolitano. 1993. Enzyme polymorphim, wing pattern variability and geographical isolation in and endangered butterfly species. Biological Conservation 66:117–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dempster, J.P. 1991. Fragmentation, isolation and mobility of insect populations. In The conservation of insects and their habitat, eds. M. Collins and J.A. Thomas, 71–108. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dempster, J.P., M.L. King, and K.H. Lakhani. 1976. The status of the swallowtail butterfly in Britain. Ecological Entomology 1:71–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deshaye, J. and P. Morisset. 1989. Species-area relationships and the SLOSS effect in asubarctic archipelago. Biological Conservation 48:265–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. 1975. The island dilemma: Lessons of modern biogeographic studies for the design of nature reserves. Biological Conservation 7:129–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dover, J.W. 1991. The conservation of insects on arable farmland. In The conservation of insects and their habitats, eds. N.M. Collins and J.A. Thomas, 293–318. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, C.A. 1993. The impact of pesticides on the environment. In The pesticide question: Environment, economics, and ethics, eds. D. Pimentel and H. Lehman, 13–46. New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Eldridge, D.J. 1994. Nests of ants and termites influence infiltration in a semi-arid woodland. Pedobiologia 38:481–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endress, P.K. 1994. Diversity and evolutionary biology of Tropical flowers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdhardt, A. and J.A. Thomas. 1991. Lepidodoptera as indicators of change in semi-natural grasslands of lowland and upland Europe. In The conservation of insects and their habitats, eds. N.M. Collins and J.A. Thomas, 213–236. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, W.F., A.L. Hakim, H. Ariawan, Yuli, and W. Settle. Unpublished manuscript. Intraguild prédation in tropical rice agroecosystems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahrig, L. and J.E. Paloheimo. 1987. Interpatch dispersal of the cabbage butterfly. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65:616–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forman, R.T.T., A.E. Galli, and C.F. Leck. 1976. Forest size and avian diversity in New Jersey woodlots with some land use implications. Oecologia 26:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Free, J.B. 1970. Insect pollination of crops. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Free, J.B. 1982. Bees and mankind. Boston: George Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaston, K.J. and B.H. McArdle. 1993. All else is not equal: Temporal population variability and insect conservation. In Perspectives on insect conservation, eds. K.J. Gaston, T.R. New, and M.J. Samways, 171–184. Andover: Intercept, Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gall, G.A.E. and G.H. Orians. 1992. Agriculture and biological conservation. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 42:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilpin, M.E. and J.M. Diamond. 1980. Subdivision of nature reserves and the maintenance species diversity. Nature 285:567–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groom, M.J. 1994. Quantifying the loss of species due to tropical deforestation. In Principles of Conservation Biology, eds. G.K. Meffe and C.R. Carroll, 121–122. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groom, M.J. and N. Schumaker. 1992. Evaluating landscape change: Patterns of worldwide deforestation and local fragmentation. In Biotic interactions and global change, eds. P.M. Kareiva, J.G. Kingsolver and R.B. Huey, 24–44. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutowski, J.M. 1990. Pollination of the orchid Dactylorhiza fuchsii by longhorn beetles in primeval forests of northeastern Poland. Biological Conservation 51:287–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafernick, J.E., Jr. 1992. Threats to invertebrate biodiversity: Implications for conservation strategies. In Conservation biology: the theory and practice of nature conservation, preservation and management, eds. P.L. Fiedler and S.K. Jain, 171–194. New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, K.S. and J.M. Franz. 1973. A history of biological control. In History of entomology, eds. R.F. Smith, T.E. Mittler, and C.N. Smith, 433–476. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hambler, C. and M.R. Speight. 1996. Extinction rates in British nonmarine invertebrates since 1900. Conservation Biology 10:892–896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, P.C. and M.V. Wilson. 1993. Status of the Fender’s blue butterfly. Report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgs, AJ. and M.B. Usher. 1984. Should nature reserves be large or small? Nature 285:568–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holldobler, B. and E.O. Wilson. 1990. The ants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Honegger, R.E. 1981. List of amphibians and reptiles either known or thought to have become extinct since 1600. Biological Conservation 19:141–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, F.G. 1991. Environmental impacts of classical biological control. Annual Review of Entomology 36:485–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huffaker, C.B. and P.S. Messenger, eds. 1976. Theory and practice of biological control. San Francisco: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, R.D., R.E. Jones, and A.P. Gutierrez. 1984. Short-term patterns of population change: the life system approach to their study. In Ecological entomology, eds. C.B. Huffaker and R.L. Rabb, 309–357. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, A. 1995. Ecology, life history, and phylogeny of outbreak and nonoutbreak species. In Population dynamics: New approaches and synthesis, eds. N. Cappuccino and P.W. Price, 41–63. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ito, Y. 1980. Comparative ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, R.R., J.C. Miller, and B. Lighthart. 1993. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki affects a beneficial insect, the cinnabar moth (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 86:334–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, R.R., P.B. McEvoy, and C.S. Cox. 1992. Combining the cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae) and the ragwort flea beetle (Longitarsus jacobaeae) for control of ragwort (Senecio jacobaea): an experimental analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 29:589–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janzen, D.H. 1971. Euglossine bees as long-distance pollinators of tropical plants. Science 171:203–205.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janzen, D.H. 1983. No park is an island: Increase in interference from the outside as park size decreases. Oikos 41:402–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvinen, O. 1982. Conservation of endangered plant populations: Single large or several small reserves. Oikos 38:301–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jennersten, O. 1988. Pollination in Dianthus deltoides (Caryophy 11aceae): Effects of habitat fragmentation on visitation and seed set. Conservation Biology 2:359–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johansen, C.A. 1977. Pesticides and pollinators. Annual Review of Entomology 22:177–192.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, J.B., J.P. McCaffrey, and F. Merickel. 1992. Endemic phytophagous insects associated with yellow starthistle in northern Idaho. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 68:169–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalule-Sabiti, J.M.N. 1980. The ecological role of ants (Formicidae) in the ecosystem. African Journal of Ecology 18:113–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R. 1993. Values and perceptions of invertebrates. Conservation Biology 7:845–855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kevan, P.G. 1975. Forest application of the insecticide Fenitrothion and its effect on wild bee pollinators (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) of lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) in southern New Brunswick, Canada. Biological Conservation 7:301–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kevan, P.G. and H.G. Baker. 1984. Insects on flowers. In Ecological entomology, eds. C.B. Huffaker and R.L. Rabb, 607–631. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K.C. 1993. Biodiversity, conservation and inventory: Why insects matter. Biodiversity and Conservation 2:191–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, CM. 1984. Open discussion on biological reserve design. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 14:39–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krimsky, S. and R.P. Wrubel. 1996. Agricultural biotechnology and the environment: Science, policy, and social issues. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuykentall, K. and T. Kaye 1993. Lupinus sulphureus spp. kincaidii survey and reproductive studies. Report to the Bureau of Land Management and the Oregon Department of Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahti, R. and E. Ranta. 1986. Island biogeography and conservation: A reply to Murphy and Wilcox. Oikos 47:388–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, J.H. and C.G. Jones. 1995. Linking species and ecosystems: Organisms as ecosystem engineers. In Linking species and ecosystems, eds. C.G. Jones and J.H. Lawton, 141–150. New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Leong, K.L.H., M.A. Yoshimura, and H.K. Kaya. 1992. Low susceptibility of overwintering monarch butterflies to Bacillus thurigiensis Berliner. Pan-Pacific Entomology 68:66–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, D.A., J. Francisco-Ortega, and R.K. Jansen. 1996. Hybridization and the extinction of rare plant species. Conservation Biology 10:10–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, D.G. and S.C.H. Barrett, eds. 1996. Floral biology: studies on floral evolution in animal pollinated plants. New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, J.A. 1993a. Environmental issues involved in biological control of rangeland grassshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with exotic agents. Environmental Entomology 22:503–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, J.A. 1993b. Benefits and costs of controlling rangeland grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with exotic organisms: Search for a null hypothesis and regulatory compromise. Environmental Entomology 22:904–914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loman, J. and T. von Schantz. 1991. Birds in a farmland—more species in small than large habitat islands. Conservation Biology 5:176–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luck, R.F., B.M. Shepard, and P.E. Kenmore. 1988. Experimental methods for evaluating arthropod natural enemies. Annual Review of Entomology 33:367–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, D. 1996. The distribution of population survival times. American Naturalist 147:506–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, E.C. and S.E. McGregor. 1973. Changing trends in insect pollination of commercial crops. Annual Review of Entomology 18:207–226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matteson, P.C. 1995. The “50% pesticides cuts” in Europe: A glimpse of our future? American Entomologist 41:210–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattoni, R.H.T. 1990. The endangered El Segundo blue butterfly. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 29:277–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mawdsley, N.A. and N.E. Stork. 1995. Species extinctions in insects: Ecological and biogeographical considerations. In Insects in a changing environment, eds. R. Harrington and N.E. Stork, 322–371. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, J.A. 1996. Ecological and evolutionary aspects of insecticide resistance. Austin, TX: R.G. Landes Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEvoy, P., C. Cox, and E. Coombs. 1991. Successful biological control of ragwort, Senecio jacobaea, by introduced insects in Oregon. Ecological Applications 1:430–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf, R.L. 1980. Changing role of insecticides in crop protection. Annual Review of Entomology 25:219–256.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf, R.L. 1994. Insecticides in pest management. In Introduction to insect pest management, ed. R.L. Metcalf and W.H. Luckmann, 245–314. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf, R.L. and W.H. Luckmann, eds. 1994. Introduction to Insect Pest Management. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf, R.L. and R.A. Metcalf. 1993. Destructive and useful insects: Their habits and control. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R.L, S.P. Bratton, and P.S. White. 1987. A regional strategy for reserve design and placement based on an analysis of rare and endangered species’ distribution patterns. Biological Conservation 39:255–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murdoch, W.W. 1994. Population regulation in theory and practice. Ecology 75:271–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murdoch, W.W., J. Chesson, and P.L. Chesson. 1985. Biological control in theory and practice. American Naturalist 125:344–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, N. 1994. Global biodiversity II: Losses. In Principles of conservation biology, eds. G.K. Meffe and C.R. Carroll, 110–140. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nafus, D.M. 1993. Movement of introduced biological control agents onto nontarget butterflies, Hypolimnas spp. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Environmental Entomology 22:265–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1993. Climatological data annual summary: Oregon. Vol. 99.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1994. Climatological data annual summary: Oregon. Vol. 100.

    Google Scholar 

  • New, T.R. 1991. Butterfly conservation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson, S.G. 1978. Fragmented habitat, species richness and conservation practice. Ambio 7:26–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oates, M.R. 1995. Butterfly conservation within the management of grassland habitats. In The ecology and conservation of butterflies, ed. A.S. Pullin, 98–112. London: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill, R.V. 1976. Ecosystem persistence and heterotrophic regulation. Ecology 57:1244–1253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orians, G.H. and P. Lack. 1992. Arable lands. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 42:101–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osenberg, C.W. and RJ. Schmitt. 1994. Detecting environmental impacts in marine environments. Ecology 4:1–2

    Google Scholar 

  • Paoletti, M.G., D. Pimentel, B.R. Stinner, and D. Stinner. 1992. Agroecosystem biodiversity: Matching production and conservation biology. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40:3–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, J.H. 1982. Insects, experts, and the insecticide crisis. New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Peterken, G.F. 1991. Ecological issues in the management of woodland nature reserves. In The scientific management of temperate communities for conservation, eds. I.F. Spellerberg, F.B. Goldsmith, and M.G. Morris, 245–272. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Picton, H. 1979. The application of insular biogeography theory to the conservation of large mammals in the northern Rocky Mountains. Biological Conservation 15:73–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel, D., H. Acquay, M. Biltonen, P. Rice, M. Silva, J. Nelson, V. Lipner, S. Giordano, A. Horowitz, and M. D’Amore. 1992. Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use. BioScience 42:750–760.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel, D., E. Garnick, A. Berkowitz, S. Jacobson, S. Napolitano, P. Black, S. Valdes-Cogliano, B. Vinzant, E. Hudes, and S. Littman. 1980. Environmental quality and natural biota. BioScience 30:750–755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel, D., L. McLaughlin, A. Zepp, B. Lakitan, T. Kraus, P. Kleinman, F. Vancini, W.J. Roach, E. Graap, W.S. Keeton, and G. Selig. 1991. Environmental and economic effects of reducing pesticide use. Bioscience 41:402–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel, D., L. McLaughlin, A. Zepp, B. Lakitan, T. Kraus, P. Kleinman, F. Vancini, W.J. Roach, E. Graap, W.S. Keeton, and G. Selig. 1993. Environmental and economic impacts of reducing U.S. agricultural pesticide use. In The pesticide question: Environment, economics, and ethics, eds. D. Pimentel and H. Lehman, 223–278. New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pollard, E. and TJ. Yates. 1993. Monitoring butterflies for ecology and conservation: the British monitoring scheme. London: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prendergast, J.R. and B.C. Eversham. 1995. Butterfly diversity in southern Britain: Hotspot Losses since 1930. Biological Conservation 72:109–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, J.F. and G. Robinson. 1987. The effects of experimental subdivision on flowering plant diversity in California annual grassland. Journal of Ecology 75:837–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, J.F., C.L. Wolin, and M.L. Judge. 1989. An experimental analysis of patch size, habitat subdivision and extinction in a marine intertidal snail. Conservation Biology 3:242–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, P.A., S.A. Clarke, and M.S. Warren. 1995. Woodland management and butterfly diversity. In Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies, ed. A.S. Pullin, 113–134. London: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Samways, M.J. 1994. Insect conservation biology. London: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samways, M.J. 1995. Southern hemisphere insects: Their variety and the environmental pressures upon them. In Insects in a changing environment, eds. R. Harrington and N.E. Stork, 298–321. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenly, K., J.E. Cohen, K.L. Heong, J.A. Litsinger, G.B. Aquino, A.T. Barrion, and G. Arida. 1996. Food web dynamics of irrigated rice fields at five elevations in Luzon, Philippines. Bulletin of Entomological Research 86:451–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, C.B. 1995. Status of the Fender’s blue butterfly (Icaricia icarioides fenderi) in Lane County, Oregon: A Year of Declines. Report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, C.B. 1996. Status of the Fender’s blue butterfly (Icaricia icarioides fenderi) in Lane County, Oregon: Population Ups and Downs. Report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, C.B. In review. The role of dispersal behavior in designing reserves for a rare Oregon butterfly. Conservation Biology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Secord, D. and P. Kareiva. 1996. Perils and pitfalls in the host specificity paradigm. BioScience 46:448–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Settle, W.H., H. Ariawan, E.T. Astuti, W. Cahyana, A.L. Hakim, D. Hindayana, A.S. Lestari, et al. In press. Managing rice pests through complexes of generalist natural enemies: an alternative to the single species approach. Ecology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, M. 1987. Minimum viable populations: coping with uncertainty. In Viable populations for conservation, ed. M.E. Soulé, 69–86. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, F.R. 1941. Bee poisoning: A review of the more important literature. Journal of Economic Entomology 34:16–21.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shreeve, T.G. 1992. Monitoring butterfly numbers. In The ecology of butterflies in Britain, ed. R.L.H. Dennis, 120–138. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibatani, A. 1990. Decline and conservation of butterflies in Japan. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 29:305–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. 1974. Equilibrium theory of island biogeography and ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5:165–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. 1982. Big advantages of small refuges. Natural History 91:6–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. 1988. The contribution of population and community biology to conservation science. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19:473–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. and L.G. Abele. 1976. Island biogeography theory and conservation practice. Science 191:285–286.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. and N. Gotelli. 1984. Effects of insularization on plant species richness in the prairieforest ecotone. Biological Conservation 29:27–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sipes, S.D. and V.J. Tepedino. 1995. Reproductive biology of the rare orchid, Spiranthes diluvialis: Breeding system, pollination, and implications for conservation. Conservation Biology 9:929–938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soulé, M.E. and D. Simberloff. 1986. What do genetics and ecology tell us about the design of nature reserves? Biological Conservation 35:19–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Southwick, E.E. and L. Southwick, Jr. 1992. Estimating the economic value of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) as agricultural pollinators in the United States. Journal of Economic Entomology 85:621–633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart-Oaten, A., J. Bence, and C. Osenberg. 1992. Assessing effects of unreplicated perturbations: no simple solutions. Ecology 73:1396–1404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surgeoner, G.A. and W. Roberts. 1993. Reducing pesticide use by 50% in the province of Ontario: challenges and progress. In The pesticide question: environment, economics, and ethics, eds. D. Pimentel and H. Lehman, 206–222. New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Temple, S.A. and J.R. Cary. 1988. Modeling dynamics and habitat-interior bird populations in fragmented landscapes. Conservation Biology 2:340–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tepedino, V.J. 1979. The importance of bees and other insect pollinators in maintaining floral species composition. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 3:139–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh, J. 1976. Island biogeography and conservation: Strategy and limitations. Science 193:1029–1030.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, CD. 1985. The status and conservation of the butterfly Plebejus argus L. (Lepidoptera:Lycaenidae) in north west Britain. Biological Conservation 33:29–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J.A. 1983. The ecology and conservation of Lysandra bellargus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Britain. Journal of Applied Ecology 20:59–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J.A. 1984a. The behavior and habitat requirements of Maculinea nausithous (the dusky large blue butterfly) and M. teleius (the scarce large blue) in France. Biological Conservation 28:325–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J.A. 1984b. The conservation of butterflies in temperate countries: Past efforts and lessons for the future. In The biology of butterflies, eds. R.I. Vane-Wright and P.R. Ackery, 333–354. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J.A. 1991. Rare species conservation: Case studies of European butterflies. In The scientific management of temperate communities for conservation, eds. I.F. Spellerberg, F.B. Goldsmith, and M.G. Morris, 149–157. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J.A. 1995. The colony and conservation of Maculinea arion and other European species of large blue butterfly. InEcology and conservation of butterflies, ed. A.S. Pullin, 180–197. London: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J.A., CD. Thomas, DJ. Simcox, and R.T. Clarke. 1986. The ecology and declining status of the silver-spotted skipper butterfly (Hesperia comma) in Britain. Journal of Animal Ecology 23:365–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J.N. 1994. The coevolutionary process. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tisdell, C.A. 1990. Economic impact of biological control of weeds and insects. In Critical issues in biological control, eds. M. Mackauer, L.E. Ehler, and J. Roland, 301–316. Andover, UK: Intercept.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, A J. 1994. On beyond BACI: Sampling designs that might reliably detect environmental disturbances. Ecology 4:3–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. 1995. Biologically based technologies for pest control, OTA-ENV-636. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Usher, M.B. 1995. A world of change: Land-use patterns and arthropod communities. In Insects in a changing environment, eds. R. Harrington and N.E. Stork, 372–399. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandermeer, J. 1989. The ecology of intercropping. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vandermeer, J. 1994. The ecological basis of alternative agriculture. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 26:201–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Driesche, R.G. and T.S. Bellows, Jr. 1996. Biological control. New York: Chapman and Hall.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Van Hook, T. 1994. The conservation challenge in agriculture and the role of entomologists. Florida Entomologist 77:42–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waage, J.K. 1991. Biodiversity as a resource for biological control. In The biodiversity of microorganisms and invertebrates: its role in sustainable agriculture, ed. D.L. Hawks worth, 149–163. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, M.S. 1993. A review of butterfly conservation in central southern Britain: I. Protection evaluation and extinction on prime sites. Biological Conservation 64:25–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, M.S., E. Pollard, and TJ. Bibby. 1986. Annual and long-term changes in a population of the wood white butterfly Leptidea sinapsis. Journal of Animal Ecology 55:707–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waterhouse, D.F. 1974. The biological control of dung. Scientific American 230:100–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watt, W.B., F.S. Chew, L.R.G. Snyder, A.G. Watt, and D.E. Rothschild. 1977. Population structure in pierid butterflies: I. Numbers and movements of some montane species. Oecologia 27:1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watt, W.B., D. Han, and B.E. Tabashnik. 1979. Population structure of pierid butterflies II:A “native” population of Colias philodice eriphyle in Colorado. Oecologia 44:44–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Way, MJ. and K.L. Heong. 1994. The role of biodiversity in the dynamics and management of insect pests of tropical irrigated rice—a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research 84:567–587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N.R. 1990. Changes on the heathlands of Dorset England between 1978 and 1987. Biological Conservation 51:273–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N.R. and J.A. Thomas. 1994. Conserving insect habitats in heathland biotopes: a question of scale. In Large-scale ecology and conservation biology, eds. PJ. Edwards, R.M. May and N.R. Webb, 129–152. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Western, D. 1989. Conservation without parks: Wildlife in the rural landscape. In Conservation for the twenty-first century, eds. D. Western and M. Pearl, 158–165. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G.R. 1984. Has island biogeography theory any relevance to the design of biological reserves in New Zealand? Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 14:7–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O. 1987. The little things that run the world. Conservation Biology 1:344–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O. 1985. The biological diversity crisis. BioScience 35:700–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M.V. and D.L. Clark. 1995. Effects of fire and fire fighting techniques on Fender’s blue butterfly and Kincaid’s lupine. Report to Western Oregon Refuges, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, G.W. 1979. Recuperation of native bee populations in blueberry fields exposed to drift of fenitrothion from forest spray operations in New Brunswick. Journal of Economic Entomology 72:36–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolhouse, M.E.J. 1987. On species richness and nature reserve design: An empirical study of U.K. woodland avifauna. Biological Conservation 40:167–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, S.J. and S.P. Hubbell. 1983. Stochastic extinction and reserve design: A focal species approach. Oikos 41:466–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Cheryl B. Schultz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gary C. Chang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California, 94132, USA

    Peggy L. Fiedler

  2. Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195, USA

    Peter M. Kareiva

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Schultz, C.B., Chang, G.C. (1998). Challenges in Insect Conservation: Managing Fluctuating Populations In Disturbed Habitats. In: Fiedler, P.L., Kareiva, P.M. (eds) Conservation Biology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6051-7_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6051-7_9

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-412-09661-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-6051-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation