Skip to main content

Learning Disabilities

  • Chapter

Abstract

The study of learning disabilities has grown exponentially during the past 30 years, bringing major developments in understanding the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of this disorder. Learning disabilities formerly were considered an appropriate topic for discussion regarding school-age children, but now we must think of this disorder in terms of the life span. In this chapter, developmental precursors to learning disabilities are discussed, along with issues affecting children and adolescents through the high school years. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss learning disabilities in the adult years, but the interested reader will find a growing literature in this area (e.g., Bigler, 1992; Gajar, 1992; Shafrir & Siegel, 1994). This chapter reviews recent developments in the field of learning disabilities and provides a current overview of the phenomenology, diagnosis, etiology, epidemiology, assessment, and treatment of this disorder.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aaron, P. G., & Simurdak, J. (1991). Reading disorders: Their nature and diagnosis. In J. E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 513–548). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (1986). The problems of definition and differentiation and the need for a classification system. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 514–520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Algozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. (1986). The future of the LD field: Screening and diagnosis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 394–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., & Ostrosky-Solis, F. (1992). Socio-educational. In A. E. Puente & R. J. McCaffrey (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychological assessment: A biopsychosocial perspective (pp. 181–192). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Association for Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities. (1985). ACLD offers new definition. Special Education Today, 2, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • August, G. J., & Holmes, C. S. (1984). Behavior and academic achievement in hyperactive subgroups and learning-disabled boys. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 138, 1025–1029.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, D. J. (1979). Hemispheric differences and reading strategies: Two dyslexias? Bulletin of the Orton Society, 29, 84–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, D. J., & Vinke, J. (1985). Effects of hemisphere-specific stimulation on brain activity and reading in dyslexics. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 7, 503–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ballard, J., Ramirez, B. A., & Zantal-Weiner, K. (1987). Public Law 94–142, Section 504, and Public Law 99–457: Understanding what they are and are not. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1990). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batchelor, E. S., Gray, J. W., & Dean, R. S. (1990). Empirical testing of a cognitive model to account for neuropsychological functioning underlying arithmetic problem solving. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 38–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beery, K. E. (1982). Revised administration, scoring, and teaching manual for the Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration. Cleveland, OH: Modern Curriculum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benton, A. L. (1975). Developmental dyslexia: Neurological aspects. In W. J. Friedlander (Ed.), Advances in neurology. (Vol. 7, pp. 1–47). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Hooper, S. R. (1993). Preventing and remediating writing disabilities: Interdisciplinary frameworks for assessment, consultation, and intervention. School Psychology Review, 22(4), 590–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, B. (1974). Language and roles. In R. Huxley & E. Ingram (Eds.), Language acquisition: Models and methods (pp. 67–72). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, E. D. (1992). The neurobiology and neuropsychology of adult learning disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(8), 488–506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birch, H. G., & Belmont, L. (1964). Auditory-visual integration in normal and retarded readers. Americanjournal of Orthopsychiatry, 34, 852–861.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birch, H. G., & Belmont, L. (1965). Auditory-visual integration, intelligence, and reading ability in school children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 20, 295–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boder, E. (1973). Developmental dyslexia: A diagnostic approach based on three atypical reading-spelling patterns. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 15, 663–687.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, C. S., & Van Reusen, A. K. (1991). Academic interventions with learning-disabled students. In J. E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities: A handbook of issues, methods, and practices (pp. 659–683). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braden, J. P. (1987). A comparison of regression and standard score discrepancy methods for learning disabilities identification: Effects on racial representation. Journal of School Psychology, 25, 23–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brislin, R. W. (1983). Cross-cultural research in psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 363–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryan, T., Bay, M., & Donahue, M. (1988). Implications of the learning disabilities definition for the regular education initiative. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 23–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryan, T., Wheeler, R., Felcan, J., & Henck, T. (1976). “Come on, Dummy”: An observational study of children’s communication. journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 53–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryden, M. P. (1988). Does laterality make any difference? Thoughts on the relation between cerebral asymmetry and reading. In D. L. Molfese & S. J. Segalowitz (Eds.), Brain lateralization in children: Developmental implications (pp. 509–525). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, R. L. (1985). Mathematics instruction in resource rooms: Instruction time and teacher competence. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 95–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chalfant, J. C. (1984). Identifying learning disabled students: Guidelines for decision-making. Burlington, VT: Northeast Regional Resource Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chalfant, J. C., & Scheffelin, M. A. (1969). Central processing dysfunction in children: A review of research (NINDS Monograph No. 9). Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corballis, M. C., & Beale, I. L. (1976). The psychology of right and left. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornwall, A. (1992). The relationship of phonological awareness, rapid naming, and verbal memory to severe reading and spelling disability. journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 532–538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Council for Exceptional Children. (1993). Inclusion: What does it mean for students with learning disabilities? Reston, VA: Division for Learning Disabilities.

    Google Scholar 

  • Culbertson, J. L., & Edmonds, J. E. (1996). Learning disabilities. In R. L. Adams, O. A. Parsons, J. L. Culbertson, & S.J. Nixon, Neuropsychology for clinical practice: Etiology, assessment, and treatment of common neurological disorders (pp. 331–408). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Culbertson, J. L., & Krull, K. R. (1996). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In R. L. Adams, O. A. Parsons, J. L. Culbertson, & S. J. Nixon, Neuropsychology for clinical practice: Etiology, assessment, and treatment of common neurological disorders (pp. 271–330). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Culbertson, J. L., & Silovsky, J. F. (1996). Learning disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Their impact on children’s significant others. In E. W. Kaslow (Ed.), Handbook of relational diagnosis and dysfunctional family patterns (pp. 186–209). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Decker, S. N., & Vandenberg, S. G. (1985). Colorado twin study of reading disability. In D. B. Gray & J. F. Kavanagh (Eds.), Biobehavioral measures of dyslexia (pp. 123–135). Parkton, MD: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C. (1985). Colorado Reading Project. In D. B. Gray & J. F. Kavanagh (Eds.), Biobehavioral measures of dyslexia (pp. 107–122). Parkton, MD: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Hirsch, K., Jansky, J., & Langford, W. (1966). Predicting reading failure. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M.B. (1983). The neuropsychology of social-emotional learning disability. Archives of Neurology, 40, 461–462.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B. (1989). Social learning disabilities. International Pediatrics, 4, 133–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B. (1991). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Residual type. Journal of Child Neurology, 6(Suppl.), S44–S50.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeStefano, L., & Snauwaert, D. (1989). A value-critical approach to transition policy analysis. Champaign: University of Illinois, Secondary Transition Intervention Effectiveness Institute. (Available from College of Education, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 110 Education Bldg., 1310 S. 6th Street, Champaign, IL 61820.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Donahue, M., & Bryan, T. (1984). Communication skills and peer relations of learning disabled adolescents. Topics in Language Disorders, 4, 10–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duane, D. D. (1991). Biological foundations of learning disabilities. In J. E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 7–27). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Education of the Handicapped Act. (1975). 20 U.S.C. Sections 1400–1485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J. H. (1905). Case of congenital word-blindness (inability to learn to read). Ophthalmic Review, 24, 315–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flicek, M., & Landau, S. (1985). Social status problems of learning disabled and hyperactive/ learning disabled boys. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 14, 340–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frostig, M. (1964). Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Percep-tion. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaddes, W. H., & Edgell, D. (1993). Learning disabilities and brain function, 3rd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gajar, A. (1992). Adults with learning disabilities: Current and future research priorities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(8), 507–519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galaburda, A. M. (1993). Neurology of developmental dyslexia. Current Opinion in Neurology, 3, 237–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galaburda, A., & Livingstone, M. (1993). Evidence for a magnocellular defect in developmental dyslexia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 682, 70–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, M. F. (1990). Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geschwind, N., & Behan, P. (1982). Left-handedness: Association with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 79, 5097–5100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geschwind, N., & Galaburda, A. M. (1985). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, association and pathology. Archives of Neurology, 42, 428–459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geschwind, N., & Levitsky, W. (1968). Human brain: Left-right asymmetries in temporal speech region. Science, 161,186–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. (1983). The Gordon Diagnostic System. Boulder, CO: Clinical Diagnostic Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross-Glenn, K., Duara, R., Barker, W., Loewenstein, D., Chang, J., Yoshii, F., Apicella, A. M., Pascal, S., Boothe, T., Sevush, S., Jallard, B. J., Novoa, L., & Lubs, H. (1991). Position emission tomographic studies during serial word-reading by normal dyslexia adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 531–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallgren, B. (1950). Specific dyslexia (congenital word blindness): A clinical and genetic study. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica, 65(Suppl.), 1–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halperin, J. M., Gittelman, R., Klein, D. F., & Rudel, R. G. (1984). Reading-disabled hyperactive children: A distinct subgroup of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 1–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammill, D. D., Leigh, J. E., McNutt, G., & Larsen, S. C. (1981). A new definition of learning disabilities. LearningDisability Quarterly, 4, 336–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardyck, C., Petrinovitch, C. F., & Goldman, R. (1976). Left-handedness and cognitive deficit. Cortex, 12, 266–278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, C. P., & Kush, J. C. (1991). Use of discrepancy formulas in the assessment of learning disabilities. In J. E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 287–307). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. K. (1981). A manualfor the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hier, D. B., LeMay, M., Rosenberg, P. B., & Perlo, V. P. (1978). Developmental dyslexia: Evidence for a subgroup with reverse asymmetry. Archives of Neurology, 35, 90–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshelwood, J. (1895). Word-blindness and visual memory. Lancet, 1, 1506–1508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshelwood, J. (1900). Congenital word-blindness. Lancet, 2, 1564–1570.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshelwood, J. (1902). Congenital word-blindness, with re-ports of two cases. Ophthalmic Review, 21, 91–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, S. R. (1988). The prediction of learning disabilities in the preschool child. In M. G. Tramontana & S. R. Hooper (Eds.), Assessment issues in child neuropsychology (pp. 313–335). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, S. R., & Willis, W. G. (1989). Learning disability sub-typing: Neuropsychological foundations, conceptual models, and issues in clinical differentiation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horn, W. F., & Packard, T. (1985). Early identification of learning problems: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 597–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, P., Kaufman, W. E., & Galaburda, A. M. (1990). Developmental dyslexia in women: Neuropathological findings in three cases. Annals of Neurology, 28, 727–738.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, P., Rosen, G. D., Press, D. M., Sherman, G. F., & Galaburda, A. M. (1991). Freezing lesions of the developing rat brain: I. A model for cerebral cortical microgyria. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 50, 145–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., & Cohen, M. (1983). Dyslexia: Neuropsychological theory, research, and cliñical differentiation. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., Connor, R. T., & Nieves, N. (1988). Learning disability subtypes: Perspectives and methodological issues in clinical assessment. In M. G. Tramontana & S. R. Hooper (Eds.), Assessment issues in child neuropsychology (pp. 281–312). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., Hall, J., Novey, E. S., Eliopulos, D., Black, K., Gonzalez, J. J., Edmonds, J. E., Riccio, C., & Cohen, M. (1995). Dyslexia and corpus callosum morphology. Archives of Neurology, 52, 32–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Lorys, A. R., Novey, E. S., & Eliopulos, D. (1990). Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit disorder/ hyperactivity. Archives of Neurology, 47, 919–926.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities. (1987). Learning disabilities: A report to the U.S. Congress. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansky, J. J., & de Hirsch, K. (1972). Preventing reading failure-Prediction, diagnosis, intervention. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. J. (1993). Relationships between oral and written language. School Psychology Review, 22(4), 595–609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. J., & Myklebust, H. R. (1967). Nonverbal disorders of learning. In D. J. Johnson & H. R. Myklebust (Eds.), Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices (pp. 272–306). New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (1983). Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children: Interpretive manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (1985). Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., Zalma, R., & Kaufman, N. L. (1978). The relationship of hand dominance to the motor coordination, mental ability, and right-left awareness of young normal children. Child Development, 49, 885–888.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, C. E., & Sutton, J. P. (1991). Specific mathematics disorders. In E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 549–571). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kephart, N. C. (1971). The slow learner in the classroom (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kintsch, W., & Kozminsky, E. (1977). Summarizing stories after reading and listening. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 491–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, S. A. (1963). Behavioral diagnosis and remediation of learning disabilities. In Proceedings of the conference on exploration into the problems of the perceptually handicapped child. Evanston, IL: Fund for the Perceptually Handicapped Child.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koppitz, E. M. (1975). The Bender Gestalt Test for Young Children. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosc, L. (1974). Developmental dyscalculia. journal of Learning Disabilities, 7, 164–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kussmaul, A. (1877). Disturbance of speech. Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine, 14, 581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laboratory for Comparative Human Cognition. (1983). Culture and cognitive development. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 342–397). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaGreca, A. M. (1981). Social behavior and social perception in learning-disabled children: A review with implication for social skills training. Journal of Pediatric. Psychology, 6, 395–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, J. P., Haien, T., Lundberg, I., & Q degaard, H. (1990). MRI evaluation of the size and symmetry of the planum temporale in adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Brain and Language, 39, 289–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leong, C. K. (1989). Neuropsychological models of learning disabilities. In C. R. Reynolds & E. Fletcher-Jan zen (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child neuropsychology (pp. 335–351). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, I. Y., & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problem of learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 41–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, M. W. (1984). A developmental perspective on reading dysfunction: Accuracy and rate criteria in the sub-typing of dyslexic children. Brain and Language, 22, 67–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, M. W. (1987). A developmental approach to reading disability: Accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill. Child Development, 58, 234–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubs, H. A., Rabin, M., Carland-Saucier, K., Wen, X. L., Gross-Glenn, K., Duara, R., Levin, B., & Lubs, M. L. (1991). Genetic bases of developmental dyslexia: Mo-lecular studies. In J. E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 49–77). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1980). Higher cortical functions in man (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lyle, J. G., & Goyen, J. (1968). Visual recognition, developmental lag and strephosymbolia in reading retardation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 25–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyle, J. G., & Goyen, J. (1975). Effects of speed exposure and difficulty of discrimination in visual recognition of retarded readers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 8, 613–616.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangrum, C. T., & Strichart, S. S. (1988). College and the learn-ing disabled student. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markoski, B. D. (1983). Conversational interactions of the learning disabled and nondisabled child. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 606–609.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, E. W. (1994, April). Inclusion: Rhetoric and reality. Exceptional Parent, pp. 39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattis, S., Erenberg, G., & French, J. H. (1978, February). Dyslexia syndromes: A cross validation study. Paper presented at the sixth annual meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Minneapolis, MN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattis, S., French, J. H., & Rapin, I. (1975). Dyslexia in children and young adults: Three independent neuropsychological syndromes. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 17, 150–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKeever, W. F., & Van Deventer, A. D. (1975). Dyslexic adolescents: Evidence of impaired visual and auditory language processing. Cortex, 11, 361–378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, T. M., & Armstrong, S. W. (1982). Learning disabilities in mathematics-skill deficits and remedial approaches at the intermediate and secondary level. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5,305–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McManus, I. C., & Bryden, M. P. (1991). Geschwind’s theory of lateralization: Developing a formal causal model. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 237–253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, 348 F. Supp. 866 (D.D.C. 1972).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirsky, A. E (1989). The neuropsychology of attention: Elements of complex behavior. In E. Perecman (Ed.), Integrating theory and practice in clinical neuropsychology (pp. 75–91). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mithaug, D., Horiuchi, C., & Fanning, P. (1985). A report on the Colorado statewide follow-up survey of special education students. Exceptional Children, 51, 397–404.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, W. P. (1896). A case of congenital word-blindness. British MedicalJournal, 2, 19–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myklebust, H. R. (1965). Development and disorders of written language (Vol. 1). New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nass, R. (1992). Developmental dyslexia: An update. Pediatrics in Review, 13(6), 231–235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities [NICHCYJ. (1991). The education of children and youth with special needs: What do the laws say? NICHCY News Digest, 1(1), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, C. A., & Zigmond, N. (1980). Characteristics of children labeled and served as learning disabled in school systems affiliated with Child Service Demonstration Centers. Journal ofLearningDisabilities,13,542–547.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novick, B. Z., & Arnold, M. M. (1988). Fundamentals of clinical child neuropsychology. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obrzut, J. E. (1988). Deficient lateralization in learning-disabled children: Developmental lag or abnormal cerebral organization? In D. L. Molfese & S. J. Segalowitz (Eds.), Brain lateralization in children: Developmental implications (pp. 567–589). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obrzut, J. E., Hynd, G. W., & Boliek, C.A. (1986). Lateralized asymmetries in learning-disabled children’s processing. In S.J. Ceci (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning disability (pp. 441–474). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hare, A. E., & Brown, J. K. (1989a). Childhood dysgraphia. Part I. An illustrated clinical classification. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 15, 79–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hare, A. E., & Brown, J. K. (1989b). Childhood dysgraphia. Part 2. A study of hand function. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 15, 151–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Hare, A. E., Brown, J. K., & Aitken, K. (1991). Dyscalculia in children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 33, 356–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary, E. (1993). Transition services and IDEA: Issues for states and local programs. South Atlantic Regional Resource Center Newsletter, Z 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Omenn, G. S., & Weber, B. A. (1978). Dyslexia: Search for phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity. Americanjournal of Medical Genetics, 1, 333–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. T. (1928). Specific reading disability-strephosymbolia. Journal of the American Medical Association, 90, 1095–1099.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. T. (1937). Reading, writing, and speech problems in children. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., Gilger, J. W., Pauls, D., Smith, S. A., Smith, S. D., & DeFries, J. C. (1991). Evidence for major gene transmission of developmental dyslexia. journal of the American Medical Association, 266, 1527–1534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., & Smith, S. D. (1983). Genetic influences on learning disabilities and speech and language disorders. Child Development, 54, 369–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 334 F. Supp. 1257 (E.D. Pa. 1972), Consent Agreement.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrauskas, R., & Rourke, B. (1979). Identification of subgroups of retarded readers: A neuropsychological multivariate approach. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 1, 17–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitan, R.M. (1979). Manual for administration of neuropsycho-logical tests for adults and children. Tucson, AZ: Neuropsy-chological Laboratory.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R. (1984). Critical measurement issues in learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 18, 451–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R. (1990). Conceptual and technical problems in learning disability diagnosis. In C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus (Eds.), Handbook of psychological and educational assessment of children (pp. 571–592). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, W. P. (1974). Social factors and language development in primary school children. In R. Huxley & E. Ingram (Eds.), Language acquisition: Models and Methods (pp. 49–63). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (1988). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Developmental manifestations in neurological disease, disorder and dysfunction. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2, 293–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (Ed.). (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and the model. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P., Bakker, D.J., Fisk, J. L., & Strang, J. D. (1983). Child neuropsychology. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P., & Finlayson, M.A.J. (1978). Neuropsych ological significance of variations in patterns of academic performance: Verbal and visual-spatial abilities. Journal ofAbnormal Child Psychology, 6, 121–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rules and Regulations Implementing Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. (1977). Publ. L. No. 94–142, 42 Fed. Reg. 42474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumsey, J. M., Anderson, P., Ametkin, A. J., Aquino, T., King, A. C., Hamburger, S. D., Pikus, A., Rapoport, J. L., & Cohen, R. M. (1992). Failure to activate the left temporoparietal cortex in dyslexia. Archives of Neurology, 49, 527–534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sainato, D. M., Zigmond, N., & Strain, P. S. (1983). Social status and initiations of interactions by learning disabled students in a regular education setting. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 3, 71–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satz, P., Taylor, H. G., Friel, J., & Fletcher, J. M. (1978). Some developmental and predictive precursors of reading disabilities: A six year follow-up. In A. L. Benton & D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge (pp. 315–347). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Satz, P., & van Nostrand, G. K. (1973). Developmental dyslexia: An evaluation of a theory. In P. Satz & J. Ross (Eds.), The disabled learner: Early detection and intervention (pp. 121–148). Rotterdam: Rotterdam University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segall, M. H. (1986). Culture and behavior. Psychology in global perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 523–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Hynd, G. W. (1990). Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic and adaptive functioning in adults and children. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 196–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Hynd, G. W. (1992). Developmental arithmetic disorder. In S. R. Hooper, G. W. Hynd, & R. E. Mattison (Eds.), Developmental disorders: Diagnostic criteria and clinical assessment (pp. 97–125). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senf, G. M. (1969). Development of immediate memory of bisensory stimuli in normal children and children with learning disabilities. Developmental Psychology, 6, 28–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafrir, U., & Siegel, L. S. (1994). Subtypes of learning disabilities in adolescents and adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(2), 123–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, B. K., Palmer, F. B., Antell, S., Bilker, S., Ross, A., & Capute, A. J. (1990). Precursors of reading delay: Neurodevelopmental milestones. Pediatrics, 85(3), 416–420.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, S. F., & Shaw, S. R. (1989). Learning disability college programming: A bibliography. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 6, 77–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., & Escobar, M. D. (1990). Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264, 998–1002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, G. F., Galaburda, A. M., & Geschwind, N. (1985). Cortical anomalies in brains of New Zealand mice: A neuropathologic model of dyslexia? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 82, 8072–8074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheslow, D., & Adams, W. (1990). Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning manual. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silver, L. B. (1979). The minimal brain dysfunction syndrome. In J. D. Noshpitz (Ed.), Basic handbook of child psychiatry (Vol. 2, pp. 416–439). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silver, L. B. (1981). The relationship between learning disabilities, hyperactivity, distractibility, and behavioral problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 385–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. D., Kimberling, W.J., Pennington, B. F., & Lubs, H. A. (1983). Specific reading disability: Identification of an inherited form through linkage analysis. Science, 219, 1345–1347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snowling, M. (1980). The development of grapheme-phoneme correspondence in normal and dyslexic readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 29, 291–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, S. S., Balla, D. A., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1984). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreen, O., Risser, A. H., & Edgell, D. (1995). In Developmental neuropsychology (pp. 489–490). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. W., & Newman, R. S. (1986). Long-term prediction of achievement and attitudes in mathematics and reading. Child Development, 57, 646–659.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. W., Parker, T., Wilkinson, A., Hegion, A., & Fish, E. (1976). Longitudinal study of individual differences in cognitive development and scholastic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 377–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strang, J. D., & Rourke, B. P. (1985). Arithmetic disability subtypes: The neuropsychological significance of specific arithmetical impairment in childhood. In B. P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 167–183). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, M. E., & Wilsher, C. (1978). Some aspects of memory in dyslexics and controls. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects ofinemory (pp. 545–560). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, R. L., & Hagen, E. P. (1977). Measurement and evaluation in psychology and education (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tramontana, M. G., Hooper, S. R., & Selzer, S. C. (1988). Research on the preschool prediction of later academic achievement. Developmental Review, 8, 89–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, D. G. (1977). Children’s lateral preference patterns: Frequency and relationships with achievement and intelligence. Journal of School Psychology, 15, 36–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. (1995). Íb assure the free appropriate public education to all children with disabilities. Seventeenth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Office of Education. (1977). Assistance to states for education of handicapped children: Procedures for evaluating specific learning disabilities. 42 Fed. Reg. 65082–65085.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voeller, K. K. S. (1986). Right hemisphere deficit syndrome in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1004–1009.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voeller, K. K. S. (1990). Right hemisphere deficit syndrome in children: A neurological perspective. International Pediatrics, 5, 163–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, M. (1992–1993). National longitudinal transition study of special education students. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallander,J. L., & Hubert, N. C. (1987). Peer social dysfunction in children with developmental disabilities: Empirical basis and a conceptual model. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 205–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1990). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children%hird Edition manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler Individual Achievement Test. (1992). Manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witelson, S. F., & Rabinovitch, M. S. (1972). Hemispheric speech lateralization in children with auditory-linguistic defects. Cortex, 8, 412–426.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, R. W., & Johnson, M. B. (1989). WoodcockJohnson Psychoeducational Battery-Revised. Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeni-Komshian, G. H., Isenberg, P., & Goldstein, H. (1975). Cerebral dominance and reading disability: Left visual-field deficit in poor readers. Neuropsychologia, 8, 83–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Culbertson, J.L. (1998). Learning Disabilities. In: Ollendick, T.H., Hersen, M. (eds) Handbook of Child Psychopathology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5905-4_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5905-4_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-7709-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-5905-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics