Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Bacterial Infections of Humans pp 395–420Cite as

Leptospirosis

  • Chapter

Abstract

Leptospirosis in humans occurs throughout the world as an acute infection ranging in severity from unnoticed and subclinical to fatal It is a zoonosis (strictly, an anthropozoonosis) acquired by humans from an animal source. The causal bacterium is a pathogenic member of the genus Leptospira, of which there are several species and more than 200 serological varieties (serovars) (see Section 3.4.1a), each of which has some special diagnostic, prognostic, or epidemiological significance.(1–3)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Faine, S. (ed.), Offset Publication, No. 67: Guidelines for the control of leptospirosis, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Faine, S., Leptospira and leptospirosis, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Ellis, W. A., International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Leptospira. Minutes of the meetings, 1 and 2 July 1994, Prague, Czech Republic, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 45:872–874 (1995).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Torten, M., Leptospirosis, in: CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses. Section A. 1. Bacterial, Rickettsia! and Mycotic Diseases (J. H. Steele, ed.), pp. 363–421, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Torten, M., and Marshall, R. B., Leptospirosis, in: Handbook of Zoonoses, Section A: Bacterial, Rickettsial, Chlamydial and Mycotic Diseases 2nd ed., Vol. (G. W. Beran, ed.), 1pp. 245–264, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Perolat, P., Chappel, R., Adler, B., et al., Description, characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Leptospira faineii sp. nov., isolated from pigs in Australia. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Johnson, R. C., and Faine, S., Genus I. Leptospira Noguchi 1917, 755, in: Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology,1st ed., Vol. I (N. R. Krieg and J. C. Holt, eds.), pp. 62–67, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Johnson, R. C., and Faine, S., Order I. Spirochaetales: Family II. “Leptospiraceae” Hovind-Hougen 1979, 245, in: Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, lst ed., Vol. 1 (N. R. Krieg and J. G. Holt, eds.), p. 62, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Faine, S., and Stallman, N. D., Amended descriptions of the genus Leptospira Noguchi 1917 and the species L. interrogans (Stimson 1907) Wenyon 1926 and L. biflexa (Wolbach and Binger 1914) Noguchi 1918, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 32:461–463 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Ellis, W. A., McParland, P. J., and Bryson, D. G., Isolation of leptospires from the genital tract and kidneys of aborted sows, Vet. Rec. 118:294–295 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Wagenaar, J. A., Leptospirosis-Diagnosis and Pathogenesis, dissertation, Veterinary Faculty, University of Utrecht, Netherlands, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Dikken, H., and Kmety, E., Serological typing methods of leptospires, in: Methods in Microbiology, Vol. 11 (T. Bergan and R. Norris, eds.), pp. 260–295, Academic Press, New York, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Kmety, E., and Dikken, H., Revised list of “Leptospira” serovars. I Alphabetical Order, II Chronological Order, Vols. 1 and 2, Groningen, Netherlands: University Press; 1988. [Accepted by the Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of “Leptospira” at the Manchester meeting, 6/7 September, 1986 (International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology, International Union of Microbiological Societies).]

    Google Scholar 

  14. Gravekamp, C., van de Kemp, H., Franzen, M., et al., Detection of seven species of pathogenic leptospires by PCR using two sets of primers, J. Gen. Microbio!. 139:1691–1700 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Letocart, M., Baranton, G., and Perolat, P., Rapid identification of pathogenic Leptospira species (Leptospira interrogans, L. borgpetersenii, and L. kirschneri) with species-specific DNA probes produced by arbitrarily primed PCR, J. Clin. Microbio!. 35:248253 (1997).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Savio, M. L., Rossi, C., Fusi, P., et al., Detection and identification of Leptospira interrogans serovars by PCR coupled with restriction endonuclease analysis of amplified DNA, J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:935–941 (1994).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Merien, F., Perolat, P., Mancel, E., et al., Detection of Leptospira DNA by polymerase chain reaction in aqueous humor of a patient with unilateral uveitis, J. Infect. Dis. 168:1335–1336 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Hookey, J. V., Bryden, J., and Gatehouse, L., The use of 16S rDNA sequence analysis to investigate the phylogeny of Leptospiraceae and related spirochaetes, J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:2585–2590 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Terpstra, W. J., Ligthart, G. S., and Schoone, G. J., Serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent-assay (ELISA), Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. Abt. I Orig. Reihe A 247:400–405 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Adler, B., Murphy, A. M., Locarnini, S., et al., Detection of specific antileptospiral immunoglobulins M and G in human serum by solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, J. Clin. Microbiol. 11:452–457 (1980).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Gussenhoven, G. C., van der Hoorn, M. A., Goris, M. G., et al., LEPTO dipstick, a dipstick assay for detection of Leptospiraspecific immunoglobulin M antibodies in human sera, J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:92–97 (1997).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Vinh, T., Adler, B., and Faine, S., Ultrastructure and chemical composition of lipopolysaccharide extracted from Leptospira interrogans serovar copenhageni, J. Gen. Microbiol. 132:103–109 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Vinh, T., Adler, B., and Faine, S., Glycolipoprotein cytotoxin from Leptospira interrogans serovar copenhageni, J. Gen. Microbiol. 132:111–123 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Mitchison, M., Bulach, D., Vinh, T., et al., Identification and characterization of the dTDP-rhamnose biosynthesis and transfer genes of the lipopolysaccharide-related rbf locus in Leptospira interrogans serovar copenhageni, J. Bacteriol. 179:1262–1267 (1997).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Vinh, T., Faine, S., Handley, C. J., etal., Immunochemical studies of opsonic epitopes of the lipopolysaccharide of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo, FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 8:99108 (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Midwinter, A., Vinh, T., Faine, S., et al., Characterization of an antigenic oligosaccharide from Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona and its role in immunity, Infect. Immun. 62:5477–5482 (1994).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Ballard, S. A., Segers, R. P. A. M., Bleumink-Pluym, N., et al., Molecular analysis of the hsp (groE) operon of Leptospira interrogans serovar copenhageni, Mol. Microbiol. 8:739–751 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Segers, R. P., van Gestel, J. A., van Eys, G. J., et al., Presence of putative sphingomyelinase genes among members of the family Leptospiraceae, Infect. Immun. 60:1707–1710 (1992).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Segers, R. P. A. M., The Molecular Analysis of Sphingomyelinase Genes of Leptospiraceae, dissertation, Rijksuniversiteit of Utrecht, Netherlands, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Ding, M., and Yelton, D. B., Cloning and analysis of the leuB gene of Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona, J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:1093–1103 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Haake, D. A., Champion, D. I., Martinich, C., et al., Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of the gene encoding OpmLl, a transmembrane outer membrane protein of pathogenic Leptospira spp., J. Bacteriol. 175:4225–4234 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Baril, C., and Saint-Girons, I., Sizing of the Leptospira genome by pulsed-field agarose gel electrophoresis, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 71:95–99 (1990).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Richaud, C., Margarita, D., Baranton, G., et al., Cloning of genes required for amino acid biosynthesis from Leptospira interrogans serovar icterohaemorrhagiae, J. Gen. Micrbiol. 136:651–656 (1990).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Zuerner, R. L., Nucleotide sequence analysis of IS1533 from Leptospira horgpetersenii: Identification and expression of two IS-encoded proteins, Plusmid 31:1–11 (1994).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Zuemer, R. L., Herrmann, J. L., and Saint Girons, I., Comparison of genetic maps for two Leptospira interrogans serovars provides evidence for two chromosomes and intraspecies heterogeneity, J. Bacteriol. 175:5445–5451 (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Ralph, D., and McClelland, M., Phylogenetic evidence for horizontal transfer of an intervening sequence between species in a spirochete genus, J. Bacteriol. 176:5982–5987 (1994).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Saint Girons, I., Margarita, D., Amouriaux, P., et al., First isola tion of bacteriophages for a spirochaete: Potential genetic tools for Leptospira, Res. Microbiol. 141:1131–1138 (1990).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Fukunaga, M., and Mifuchi, I., Unique organization of Leptospira interrogans rRNA genes, J. Bacteriol. 171:5763–5767 (1989).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Penn, C. W., Bassford, P. J., Yelton, D. B., et al., Genetic approaches to cell biology and metabolism of spirochetes, Res. Microbiol. 143:605–613 (1992).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Ralph, D., Que, Q., Van Etten, J. L., et al., Leptospira genomes are modified at 5’-GTAC, J. Bacteriol. 175:3913–3915 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Vinh, T., Shi, M. H., Adler, B., et al., Characterisation and taxonomic significance of lipopolysaccharides of Leptospira interogans serovar hardjo, J. Gen. Microbiol. 135:2663–2673 (1989).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Chang, A., Faine, S., and Williams, W. T., Cross-reactivity of the axial filament antigen as a criterion for classification of Leptospira, Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 52:549–568 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Vinh, T., Faine, S., and Adler, B., Adhesion of leptospires to mouse fibroblasts (L929) and its enhancement by specific antibody, J. Med. Microbiol. 18:73–85 (1984).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Ito, T., and Yanagawa, R., Leptospiral attachment to extracellular matrix of mouse fibroblast (L929) cells, Vet. Microbiol. 15:89–96 (1987).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Niikura, M., Ono, E., and Yanagawa, R., Molecular comparison of antigens on proteins of virulent and avirulent clones of Leptospira interrogans serovar copenhageni strain Shibaura, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. Abt. I Orig. Reihe. A 266:453–462 (1987).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Ono, E., Takase, H., Naiki, M., et al., Purification, characterization and serological properties of a glycolipid antigen reactive with a serovar-specific monoclonal antibody against Leptospira interrogans serovar canicola, J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:1329–1336 (1987).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Takashima, I., and Yanagawa, R., Isolation and chemical characterisation of streptomycin-resistant mutants of leptospiras, Jpn. J. Microbiol. 16:535–537 (1972).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ellis, W. A., Songer, J. G., Montgomery, J., et al., Prevalence of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo in the genital and urinary tracts of nonpregnant cattle, Vet. Rec. 118:11–13 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Palit, A., Hosking, C., Create, L., et al., Leptospirosis in dairy farmers of western Victoria, Australia, in: Leptospirosis. Proceedings of the Leptospirosis Research Conference, 1990 (Y. Kobayashi, ed.), pp. 126–137, Hokusen-Sha Publishing, Tokyo, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Sasaki, D. M., Pang, L., Minette, H. P., et al., Active surveillance and risk factors for leptospirosis in Hawaii, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 48:35–43 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Li, Y. [Cluster and multiple regression analysis of leptospirosis epidemic factors].Chung Hua Liu Hsing Ping Hsueh Tsa Chih 13:151–153 (1992).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Philipp, R., King, C., and Hughes, A., Understanding of Weil’s disease among canoeists, Br. J. Sports Med. 26:223–227 (1992).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Johnston, J. H., Lloyd, J., McDonald, J., et al., Leptospirosis: An occupational disease of soldiers, J. R. Army Med. Corps. 129:111–114 (1983).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Jackson, L. A., Kaufmann, A. F., Adams, W. G., et al., Outbreak of leptospirosis associated with swimming, Pediate Infect. Dis. J. 12:48–54 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Katz, A. R., Manea, S. J., and Sasaki, D. M., Leptospirosis on Kauai: Investigation of a common source waterborne outbreak, Am. J. Public Health 81:1310–1312 (1991).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Gollop, J. H., Pang, G., and Sasaki, D. M., Leptospirosis: A possible cause of “aseptic meningitis,” Hawaii Med. J. 49:162, 165 (1990).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Ferguson, I. R., Leptospirosis surveillance: 1990–1992, Commun. Dis. Rep. 3:R47–R48 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Shyakov, E. N., Influence de l’activité humaine sur l’épidémiologie des zooanthroponoses, Med. Mal. Infect. 13:784–787 (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Galuzo, I. G., Landscape epidemiology (epizootology), Adv. Vet. Sci. 19:73–96 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Giudicelli, J., Lemaitre, D., Fournier, V., et al., [3 pediatric cases of leptospirosis), Trois observations pédiatriques de leptospirose, Pédiatrie 48:455–458 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Self, C. A., Iskrzynska, W. I., and Waitkins, S. A., Leptospirosis among British cavers, Cave Sci. 14:131–134 (1987).

    Google Scholar 

  62. Ballard, S. A., Adler, B., Millar, B. D., et al., The immunoglobulin response of swine following experimental infection with Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. Abt. I Orig. Reihe. A 256:510–517 (1984).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Leonard, F. C., Quinn, P. J., Ellis, W. A., et al., Association between cessation of leptospiruria in cattle and urinary antibody levels, Res. Vet. Sci. 55:195–202 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Peet, R. L., Mercy, A., Hustas, L., et al., The significance of Leptospira isolated from the kidneys of slaughtered pigs, Aust. Vet. J. 60:226–227 (1983).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Goard, K. E., Infection by Leptospira pomona contracted from pigs by mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, Med. J. Aust. 1:897–898 (1961).

    Google Scholar 

  66. Spinu, I., Topciu, V., Trinh, T. H. Q., et al., L’homme comme réservoir de virus dans une épidémie de leptospirose survenue dans la jungle, Arch. Roum. Pathol. Exp. Microbiol. 22:1081–1100 (1963).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Gsell, H. O., Olafsson, A., Sonnabend, W., et al., Intrauterine Leptospirosis pomona, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 96:1263–1268 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  68. Faine, S., Adler, B., Christopher, W., et al., Fatal congenital human leptospirosis, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. Abt. I Orig. Reihe. A 257:548 (1984).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Gollop, J. H., Katz, A. R., Rudoy, R. C., et al., Rat-bite leptospirosis, West J. Med. 159:76–77 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Cerny, A., Ettlin, D., Betschen, K., et al., Weil’s disease after a rat bite, Eur. J. Med. 1:315–316 (1992).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Korthof, G., Experimentelles Schlammfieber beim Menschen, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Abt. I 125:429–434 (1932).

    Google Scholar 

  72. Derrick, E. H., Estimation of the incubation period of canefield leptospirosis from the weekly work pattern, Pathology 1:73–75 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Faine, S., Virulence in Leptospira. II. The growth in vivo of virulent Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 38:8–14 (1957).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Ballard, S. A., Williams, M., Adler, B., et al., Interactions of virulent and avirulent leptospires with primary cultures of renal epithelial cells, J. Med. Microbiol. 21:59–67 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Edwards, C. N., Nicholson, G. D., and Everard, C. O. R., Thrombocytopenia in leptospirosis, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:827–829 (1982).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. De Arriaga, A. J. D., Rocha, A. S., Yasuda, P. H., et al., Morpho-functional patterns of kidney injury in the experimental leptospirosis of the guinea-pig (L. icterohaemorrhagiae), J. Pathol. 138:145–161 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  77. Sitprija, V., Pipatangul, V., Mertowidjojo, K., et al., Pathogenesis of renal disease in leptospirosis: Clinical and experimental studies, Kidney Int. 17:827–836 (1980).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Sitprija, V., Renal involvement in leptospirosis, in: Nephrology (R. R. Robinson, ed.), pp. 1041–1052. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Avery, T. L., Leptospirosis and mental illness, N. Z. Med. J. 96:589 (1983).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Kasarov, L. B., Degradation of the erythrocyte phospholipids and haemolysis of the erythrocytes of different animal species by Leptospirae, J. Med. Microbiol. 3:29–37 (1970).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Thompson, J. C., Morphological changes in red blood cells of calves caused by Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona, J. Comp. Pathol. 96:512–527 (1986).

    Google Scholar 

  82. de Brito, T., Prado, M. J. B. A., Negreiros, V. A. C., et al., Detection of leptospiral antigen (L. interrogans serovar copenhageni serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae) by immunoelectron microscopy in the liver and kidney of experimentally infected guinea-pigs, Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 73:633–642 (1992).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Younes-Ibrahim, M., Burth, P., Faria, M. V., et al., Inhibition of Na,K-ATPase by an endotoxin extracted from Leptospira interrogans: A possible mechanism for the physiopathology of leptospirosis, C. R. Acad. Sci. 318:619–625 (1995).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Burth, P., Younes-Ibrahim, M., Goncalez, F. H., et al., Purification and characterization of an Na+,K+ ATPase inhibitor found in a endotoxin of Leptospira interrogans, Infect. Immunity 65:1557–1560 (1997).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Jost, B. H., Adler, B., and Faine, S., Experimental immunisation of hamsters with lipopolysaccharide antigens of Leptospira interrogans, J. Med. Microbiol. 29:115–120 (1989).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Vinh, T., Faine, S., Handley, C. J., et al., Immunochemical studies of opsonic epitopes of the lipopolysaccharide of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo, FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 8:99*#x2013;107 (1994).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Everard, C. O. R., and Bennett, S., Persistence of leptospiral agglutinins in Trinidadian survey subjects, Eur. J. Epidemiol. 6:40–44 (1990).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Everard, C. O., Baulu, J., Carrington, D. G., et al., Retention of leptospiral agglutinins and long-term response to administration of monoclonal antibodies in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) on Barbados, Eux J. Epidemiol. 7:396–402 (1991).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Ruby, K. W., Cardella, M. A., and Knudtson, W. U., Assay for measuring relative potency of leptospiral bacterins containing serovar pomona, Biologicals 20:259–266 (1992).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Shenberg, E., and Torten, M., A new leptospiral vaccine for use in man. I. Development of a vaccine from “Leptospira” grown on a chemically defined medium, J. Infect. Dis. 128:642–646 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Torten, M., Shenberg, E., Gerichter, C. B., et al., A new leptospiral vaccine for use in man. II. Clinical and serologic evaluation of a field trial with volunteers, J. Infect. Dis. 128:647–651 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Chen, T. Z., Development and present status of leptospiral vaccine and technology of production of the vaccine in China, Ann. Immunol. Hung. 26:125–151 (1986).

    Google Scholar 

  93. Watt, G., Leptospirosis, Cur. Opin. Infect. Dis. 5:659–663 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  94. Faine, S., Leptospirosis, in: Infection Diseases, 5th ed. (P. D. Hoeprich, M. C. Jordan, and A. R. Roland, eds.), pp. 619–625, Lippincott, Philadelphia (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  95. Watt, G., Padre, L. P., Tuazon, M. L., et al., Placebo-controlled trial of intravenous penicillin for severe and late leptospirosis, Lancet 1:433–435 (1988).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Watt, G., Padre, L. P., Tuazon, M., et al., Limulus lysate positivity and Herxheimer-like reactions in leptospirosis: A placebo-controlled study, J. Infect. Dis. 162:564–567 (1990).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Friedland, J. S., and Warrell, D. A., The Jarisch—Herxheimer reaction in leptospirosis: Possible pathogenesis and review, Rev. Infect. Dis. 13:207–210 (1991).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Emmanouilides, C. E., Kohn, O. F., and Garibaldi, R., Leptospirosis complicated by a Jarisch—Herxheimer reaction and adult respiratory distress syndrome: Case report, Clin. Infect. Dis. 18:1004–1006 (1994).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Vaughan, C., Cronin, C. C., Walsh, E. K., et al., The JarischHerxheimer reaction in leptospirosis, Postgrad. Med. J. 70:118121 (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  100. Faine, S., Leptospirosis, in: Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases. Principles and Practice, Bacterial Mycotic and Parasitic Diseases, Vol. 1 (A. Balows et al., eds.), pp. 344–352, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  101. van Eys, G. J. J. M., Gravenkamp, C., Gerritsen, M. J., et al., Detection of leptospires in urine by polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:2258–2262 (1989).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Ellis, W. A., Montgomery, J., and Cassells, J. A., Dihydrostreptomycin treatment of bovine carriers of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo, Res. Vet. Sci. 39:292–295 (1986).

    Google Scholar 

  103. Gerritsen, M. J., Koopmans, M. J., and Olyhoek, T., Effect of streptomycin treatment on the shedding of and the serologic responses to Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo subtype hardjobovis in experimentally infected cows, Vet. Microbiol. 38:129–135 (1993).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Takafuji, E. T., Kirkpatrick, J. W., Miller, R. N., et al., An efficacy trial of doxycycline chemoprophylaxis against leptospirosis, N. Engl. J. Med. 310:497–500 (1984).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Suggested Reading

  • Faine, S. (ed.), Offset Publication, No. 67: Guidelines for the Control of Leptospirosis, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faine, S., Leptospira and Leptospirosis, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torten, M., and Marshall, R. B., Leptospirosis, in: Handbook of Zoonoses, Section A: Bacterial, Rickettsial, Chlamydial and Mycotic Diseases 2nd ed., Vol. 1 (G. W. Beran, ed.), pp. 245–264, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watt, G., Leptospirosis, Infect. Cure. Opin. Dis. 5:659–663 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  • Faine, S., Leptospirosis, in: Infectious Diseases, 5th ed. (P. D. Hoeprich, M. C. Jordan, and A. R. Roland, eds.), pp. 619–625, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faine, S., Leptospira, in: Topley and Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 9th ed., Vol. 2. Systematic Bacteriology (A. Balows and B. I. Duerden, eds.), pp. 1287–1303, Arnold, London, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faine, S., Leptospirosis, in: Topley and Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 9th ed., Vol. 3. Bacterial Infections (W. J. Haus1er and M. Sussman, eds.), pp. 849–869, Arnold, London, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrar, W. E., Leptospira species (Leptospirosis), in: Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 4th ed., Vol. 2 (G. L. Mandell, J. E. Bennett, and R. Dolin, eds.), pp. 2137–2141, Churchill Livingstone, New York, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton Vic, 3168, Australia

    Solly Faine

Authors
  1. Solly Faine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Late of Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

    Alfred S. Evans

  2. The Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

    Philip S. Brachman

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Faine, S. (1998). Leptospirosis. In: Evans, A.S., Brachman, P.S. (eds) Bacterial Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5327-4_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5327-4_21

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-306-45323-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-5327-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation