Skip to main content

The Evolution of Flower Display and Reward

  • Chapter
Evolutionary Biology

Part of the book series: Evolutionary Biology ((EBIO,volume 27))

Abstract

The evolution of the allocation of resources for display and reward in flowers is critically analyzed. We construct models which take into account the foraging behavior and preferences of pollinators and their effects on the pollination success of the plants. The resulting equilibrium ESS (evolutionary stable strategy) of the flowers—pollinators community is analyzed at both the short-term ecological level and the long-term coevolutionary level.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Arrow, K. J. and Intrilagator, M. D., 1981, Handbook of Mathematical Economics, North-Holland, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagwell, K., and Ramey, G., 1988, Advertising, coordination and signaling, Discussion paper No. 787, Department of Economics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, A. G., and Hurd, P. H., 1969, Intrafloral ecology, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 13:885–914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, J. S., and Sobel, J., 1987, Equilibrium selection in signaling games. Econometrica 55:647–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barth, F. G., 1985, Insect and Flowers: The Biology of a Partnership, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, G., 1986, The evolution of empty flowers, J. Theor. Biol. 118:253–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertsch, A., 1987, Flowers as food sources and the cost of outcrossing, Ecol. Stud. 61:273–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, A., 1989, On the relation between pollination resource allocation and water potential in Impatiens glandulifera, M. Sci. Thesis, Philipps Universität, Marburg, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. H., and Kodric-Brown, A., 1979, Convergence, competition and mimicry in a temperate community of hummingbird pollinated flowers, Ecology 60:1022–1035.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapin, F. S., 1989, The cost of tundra plant structure: Evaluation of concepts and currencies, Am. Nat. 112:975–997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charlesworth, D., and Charlesworth, B., 1987, The effect of investment in attractive structures on allocation to male and female function in plants, Evolution 41:948–968.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charlesworth, D., Schemske, D. W., and Sork, V. L., 1987, The evolution of plant reproductive characters; Sexual versus natural selection, in: The Evolution of Sex and Its Consequences, (B. C. Stearns, eds.), pp. 317–335, Birkhauser, Basel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnov, E. L., 1982, The Theory of Sex Allocation, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnov, E. L., and Bull, J. J., 1986, Sex allocation, pollinator attraction and fruit dispersal in cosexual plants, J. Theor. Biol. 118:321–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, I. K., and Kreps, D. M., 1987, Signalling games and stable equilibria, Q. J. Econ. 102:179–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D., 1993, The equilibrium distribution of optimal search and sampling effort of foraging animals in patchy environments. Ms. in preparation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruden, R. W., Hermann, S. M., and Peterson, S., 1983, Patterns of nectar production and plant-pollinator coevolution, in: The Biology of Nectaries (B. Bentley and T. Elias, eds.), pp. 80–125, Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dafni, A., 1984, Mimicry and deception in pollination, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15:259–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dukas, R., and Shmida, A., 1989, Correlation between the color, size, and shape of cruicifer flowers and relationships to pollinators, Oikos 54:281–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faegri, K., and van der Fijl, L., 1979, The Principles of Pollination Ecology, Pergamon, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahan, A., 1949, Studies in the ecology of nectar secretion, Palest. J. Bot. Jerus. Ser. 4:207–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galen, C., and Newport, M. E. A., 1987, Bumblebee behavior and selection on flower size in the sky pilot, Polemonium viscosum, Oecologia 74:20–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grafen, A., 1993, Biological signals as handicaps, J. Theor. Biol. 144:517–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, R. F., 1987, Stochastic models of optimal learning, in: Foraging Behavior (A. C. Kamil, J. R. Krebs, and H. R. Pulliam, eds.) pp. 280–302, Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, G. M., and Shapiro, C., 1982, Informative advertising with differentiated product, Bell J. Econ. 11:749–752.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, B., 1979, Bumblebees Economics, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, B., 1983, Insect foraging energetics, in: Handbook of Experimental Pollination Biology (C. E. Jones and R. J. Little, eds.), pp. 187–214, Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, B., and Raven, P. H., 1972, Energetics of pollination, Science 176:597–602.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herrera, J., 1985, Nectar secretion patterns in southern Spanish Mediterranean scrubland, Isr. J. Bot. 24:47–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houston, A. I., and Sumida, B. H., 1987, Learning rules, matching and frequency dependence, J. Theor. Biol. 126:289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houston, A. I., Kacelnik, A., and McNamara, J., 1982, Some learning rules for acquiring information, in: Functional Ontogeny (D. J. McFarland, ed.), pp. 140–191, Pitman, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadmon, R., and Shmida, A., 1992, Departure rules used by bees foraging for nectar: A field test, J. Evol. Biol. 6:142–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadmon, R., Shmida, A., and Selten, R., 1992, Within-plant foraging behaviour of bees and its relationship to nectar distribution in Anchusa strigosa, Isr. J. Bot. 40:1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasher, R., 1991, Pollination ecology of Salvia fructicosa in the Mediterranean region, M. Sci. thesis, Department of Botany, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kevan, P. G., and Baker, H. G., 1983, Insect flower visitors and pollinators, Annu. Rev. Entolmol. 28:407–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiester, A. R., Lande, R., and Schemske, D. W., 1984, Models of coevolution and speciation in plants and their pollinators, Am. Nat. 124:220–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klinkhamer, P. G. L., and de Jong, T. J., 1992, Attractiveness to pollinators: A plant’s dilemma with consequences for evolution of protandry and dioecy. Ms. in preparation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knuth, P., 1906, Handbook of Floral Biology, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, J. R., and Davies, N. B. (eds.), 1984, Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, 2nd ed., Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, J. R., and Dawkins, R., 1984, Animal signals: Mind-reading and manipulation, in: Behavioural Ecology (J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, eds.), pp. 380–402, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, J. R., and McCleary, R. H., 1984, Optimization in behavioural ecology, in: Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, 2nd ed. (J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, ed.), pp. 91–121, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreps, D. M., 1990, A Course in Microeconomic Theory, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreps, D. M., and Sobel, J., 1993, Signalling, in: Handbook of Game Theory, Vol. 2 (R. Aumann and S. Hart, eds.), in press, North-Holland, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kugler, M., 1943, Hummeln als Blutenbesucher, Ergebn. Biol. 9:143–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunin, W. E., and Shmida, A., 1993, Reproductive characteristics of crucifers as a function of local and regional density, Conserv. Biol. in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, D. G., 1984, Gender allocation in outcrossing cosexual plants, in: Principles of Plant Population Ecology (R. Dirzo and J. Saurkan, eds.), pp. 277–300, Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, D. G., 1987, A general principle for the allocation of limited resources, Evol. Ecol. 2:175–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, D. G., 1988, Benefits and costs of biparental and uniparental reproduction in plants, in: The Evolution of Sex (R. E. Michod and B. R. Levin, eds.), pp. 233–252, Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangel, M., 1987, Modelling behaviourial decisions of insects, in: Lecture Notes in Biomathematics, Vol. 73 (Y. Cohen, ed.), pp. 1–18, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynard-Smith, J., 1982, Evolution and the Theory of Games, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, J., and Houston, A., 1985, A simple model of information use in the exploitation of patchily distributed food, Anim. Behav. 33:553–560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, R., and Shmida, A., 1993, The ecology of flower colors and the natural color vision systems of insect pollinators, Biol. Rev. 68:81–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milgrom, P., and Roberts, J., 1986, Price and advertising signals of product quality, J. Political Econ. 94:796–821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, P., 1974, Advertising as information, J. Political Econ. 82:729–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opler, P. A., 1983, Nectar production in a tropical ecosystem, in: The Biology of Nectaries (B. Bentley and T. Elias, eds.), pp. 30–79, Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peleg, B., and Shmida, A., 1992, Short-run stable matching between bees and flowers, Games Econ. Behav. 4:232–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Percival, M. S., 1965, Floral Biology, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pleasant, J. M., 1989, Optimal foraging by nectarivores: A test of the marginal-value theorem, Am. Nat. 134:51–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pleasant, J. M., and Chaplin, S. J., 1983, Nectar production rates in Asclepias quadrifolia—Causes and consequences of individual variation, Oecologia 59:232–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pleasant, J. M., and Zimmerman, M., 1979, Patchiness in the dispersion of nectar resources: Evidence for hot and cold spots, Oecologia 41:283–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Possingham, H. P., 1989, The distribution and abundance of resources encountered by a forager, Am. Nat. 133:42–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Primack, R. B., 1985, Longevity of individual flowers, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16:15–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Primack, R. B., 1987, Relationship among flowers, fruits, and seeds, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:409–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, M. C. F. and Yeo, P. F., 1973, The Pollination of Flowers, Collins, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyke, G. H., 1978, Optimal foraging in bumblebees and coevolution with their plants, Oecologia 36:281–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyke, G. H., 1981, Optimal foraging in hummingbirds. Rule of movement between inflorescens, Anim. Behav. 29:889–896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Real, L., 1991, Animal choice behaviour and the evolution of cognitive architecture, Science 253:980–986.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Real, L., and Rathcke, B., 1988, Patterns of individual variability in floral resources, Ecology 69:728–735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regal, P. J., 1982, Pollination by wind and animals: Ecology of geographic patterns, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 13:497–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, A. J., 1986, Plant Breeding System, Allen & Unwin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild, M., and Stiglitz, J. E., 1976, Equilibrium in competitive insurance market: An essay on the economics of imperfect information, Q. J. Econ. 80:639–649.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schemske, D. W., 1983, Limits to specialization and coevolution in plant animal mutualisms, in: Coevolution (M. H. Nitecki, ed.), pp. 67–109, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmalensee, R., 1986, Advertising and market structure, in: New Developments in the Analysis of Market Structure (J. E. Stiglitz and G. F. Mathewson, eds.), pp. 373–398, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoen, D. J., and Dubuc, M., 1990, The evolution of inflorescence size and number: A gamate packaging strategy in plants, Am. Nat. 135:841–857.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selten, R., and Shmida, A., 1990, A model for nectar equilibrium for normed and exclusive flowers. Ms. in preparation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selten, R., and Shmida, A., 1991, Pollinator foraging and flower competition in a game equilibrium model, in: Game Theory in Behavioural Sciences (R. Selten, ed.), Vol. 1, pp. 195–256, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shmida, A., and Dafni, A., 1989, Blooming strategies, flower size, and advertisement in the “Lilygroup” geophytes of Israel, Herbartia 45:111–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shmida, A., and Dukas, R., 1990, Progressive reduction in the mean body size in solitary bees active during the flowering season and its correlation with the size of flowers of the mint family (Lamiaceae), Isr. J. Bot. 39:133–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shmida, A., and Kadmon, R., 1991, Within-plant patchiness in nectar standing crop in Anchusa strigosa, Vegetatio 94:95–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shmida, A., O’Toole, C., and Ivri, Y., 1992, Elements of bee-flower interactions in a Mediterranean pollination market, Israel. Ms. in preparation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, A. M., 1974, Market Signaling, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, M. L., and Galloway, L. F., 1990, Natural selection and allocation to reproduction in flowering plants, in: Some Mathematical Questions in Biology—Sex Allocation and Sex Change: Experiments and Models (M. Mangel, ed.), pp. 1–50, American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, M., Snow, A. A., and Handel, S. N., 1986, Floral evolution: Attractiveness to pollinators influences male fitness, Science 232:1625–1627.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, G. N., 1990, Endothermy and thermoregulation in solitary bees, Ph.D. thesis, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, J. D., 1983, Component analysis of community-level interactions in pollination systems, in: Handbook of Experimental Biology. Scientific and Academic Editions (C. E. Jones and R. J. Little, eds.), pp. 451–460, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, J. D., Price, M. V., Waser, N. M., and Stratton, D. A., 1986, Comparative studies of pollen and fluorescent dye transport by bumblebees visiting Erythronium grandiflorum, Oecologia 69:561–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waddington, K. D., 1983, Foraging behaviour of pollinators, in: Pollination Biology (L. Real, ed.), pp. 213–239, Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waser, N. M., 1983, The adaptive nature of floral traits: Ideas and evidence, in: Pollination Biology, (L. Real, ed.), pp. 241–285, Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitham, T. G., 1977, Coevolution of foraging in Bombus and nectar dispensing in Chilopsis. A last drag theory, Science 197:593–596.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, R., 1982, Inflorescence architecture: How flower number, arrangement and phenology effect pollination and fruit set, Am. J. Bot. 69:585–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zahavi, A., 1975, Mate selection—A selection for a handicap, J. Theor. Biol. 53:205–214.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M., 1983, Plant reproduction and optimal foraging: Expermental nectar manipulation in Delphinium nelsonii, Oikos 41:58–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M., 1988, Nectar production, flowering phenology and strategies for pollination, in: Plant Reproductive Ecology (J. Lovett-Doust and L. Lovett-Doust, eds.), pp. 157–178, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cohen, D., Shmida, A. (1993). The Evolution of Flower Display and Reward. In: Hecht, M.K., MacIntyre, R.J., Clegg, M.T. (eds) Evolutionary Biology. Evolutionary Biology, vol 27. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2878-4_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2878-4_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6248-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-2878-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics