Abstract
Considerable controversy has developed within the conservation community as to the precise magnitude of the biological diversity crisis and the appropriate tactics needed to prevent mass extinctions. Most biologists agree that: (1) an increasing number of species are facing extinction as a result of native habitat loss or fragmentation (Wilson, 1988) and (2) nearly all habitat destruction results from the direct or indirect action of man (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1981). Uncertainties about the number of species at risk and the relationship between habitat destruction and species extinction (Mann, 1991) prevent qualitative estimates of what Ehrlich and Wilson (1991) describe as “the epidemic of extinctions now underway.” Such uncertainty complicates the formulation of effective public policy directed at preserving biological diversity.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Alderdice, D.F., J.O.T. Jensen, and F.P.J. Velsen. 1984. Measurement of hydrostatic pressure in salmonid eggs. Can. J. Zool. 62: 1977–1987.
Arii, N., K. Namai, F. Gomi, and T. Nakazawa. 1987. Cryoprotection of medaka embryos during development. Zool. Sci. 4: 813–818.
Asahina, E. and T. Takahashi. 1978. Freezing tolerance in embryos and spermatozoa of the sea urchin. Cryobiology 15: 122–127.
Ballou, J. D. 1992. Potential contribution of cryopreserved germ plasm to the preservation of genetic diversity and conservation of endangered species in captivity. Cryobiology 29: 19–25.
Blaxter, J.H.S. 1969. Development: Eggs and larvae, in: “Fish Physiology,” W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall, eds., vol. 3, pp. 178–252, Academic Press, New York.
Conway, W. 1988. Can technology aid species preservation?, in: “Biodiversity,” E. O. Wilson, ed., pp. 263–268, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Critser, J., B.W. Arneson, D.V. Aaker, and G.D. Ball. 1986. Cryopreservation of hamster oocytes: Effects of vitrification or freezing on human sperm penetration of zona-free hamster oocytes. Fertil. Steril. 46: 277–284.
Eddy, F.B. 1974. Osmotic properties of the perivitelline fluid and some properties of the chorion of Atlantic salmon eggs (Salmo salar). J. Zool. Lond. 174: 237–243.
Ehrlich, P.R. and A.H. Ehrlich. 1981. “Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species,” Random Press, New York.
Ehrlich, P.R. and E.O. Wilson. 1991. Biodiversity studies: Science and policy. Science 253: 758–762.
Erdahl, D.A. and E.F. Graham. 1980. Preservation of gametes of freshwater fish, in: “Proc. 9th International Congress on Animal Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, RT-H-2,” pp. 317–326.
Fahy, G.M., D.R. MacFarlane, C.A. Angell, and H.T. Meryman. 1984. Vitrification as an approach to cryopreservation. Cryobiology 21: 407–426.
Frankel, O.H. and M.E. Soulé. 1981. “Conservation and Evolution.” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Fullilove, S.L., A.G. Jacobson, and F.R. Turner. 1978. Embryonic development: Descriptive, in: “The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, ” M. Ashburner and T. R. F. Wright, eds., vol. 2C, p. 151, Academic Press, New York.
Grady, A.W., I.E. Greer, and R.M. McLaughlin. 1991. Laboratory management and husbandry of the Japanese medaka. Lab Anim. 20: 22–28.
Groot, E.P. and D.F. Alderdice. 1985. Fine structure of the external egg membrane of five species of Pacific salmon and steelhead trout. Can. J. Zool. 63: 552–566.
Hayashi, S., K. Kobayashi, J. Mizuno, K. Saitoh, and S. Hirano. 1989. Birth of piglets from frozen embryos. Vet. Record 125: 43–44.
Harvey, B. 1983. Cooling embryonic cells, isolated blastoderms and intact embryos of the zebra fish Brachydanio rerio to-196°C. Cryobiology 20: 440–447.
Harvey, B. and M.J. Ashwood-Smith. 1982. Cryoprotectant penetration and supercooling in the eggs of salmonid fishes. Cryobiology 19: 29–40.
Harvey, B. and J.B. Chamberlain. 1982. Water permeability in the developing embryo of the zebrafish, Brachydanio rerio. Can. J. Zool. 60: 268–270.
Harvey, B., R.N. Kelley, and M.J. Ashwood-Smith. 1983. Permeability of intact and dechorionated zebra fish embryos to glycerol and dimethyl sulfoxide. Cryobiology 20: 432–439.
Hayes, F.R. 1949. The growth, general chemistry and temperature relations of salmonid eggs. Q. Rev. Biol. 24: 281–308.
Hill, D.L. 1945. Chemical removal of the chorion from Drosophila eggs. Drosoph. Inform. Serv. 19: 62.
Iwamatsu, T. 1983. New techniques for dechorionation and observations on the development of the naked egg in Oryzias latipes. J. Exp. Zool. 228: 83–89.
Kono, T., O. Suzuki, and Y. Tsunoda. 1988. Cryopreservation of rat blastocysts by vitrification. Cryobiology 25: 170–173.
Laale, H.W. 1977. The biology and use of the zebra fish Brachydanio rerio in fisheries research. J. Fish Biol. 10: 121–173.
Leibo, S.P. 1977. Fundamental cryobiology of mouse ova and embryos, in: “The Freezing of Mammalian Embryos,” K. Elliott and J. Whelan, eds., pp. 69–92, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Leibo, S.P. 1980. Water permeability and its activation energy of fertilized and unfertilized mouse ova. J. Membr. Biol. 53: 179–188.
Leibo, S.P. 1984. A one-step method for direct nonsurgical transfer of frozen-thawed bovine embryos. Theriogenology 21: 767–790.
Leibo, S.P., S.P. Myers, and P.L. Steponkus. 1988. Survival of Drosophila melanogaster embryos cooled to subzero temperatures. Cryobiology 25: 545–546.
Levin, R.L. and T.W. Miller. 1981. An optimum method for the introduction and removal of permeable cryoprotectants. Cryobiology 18: 32–48.
Limbourg, B. and M. Zalokar. 1978. Permeabilization of Drosophila embryos. Dev. Biol. 35: 382–387.
Lin, T.-T., R.E. Pitt, and P.L. Steponkus. 1989. Osmometric behavior of Drosophila melanogaster embryos. Cryobiology 26: 453–471.
Loeffler, C.A. and S. Lovtrup. 1970. Water balance in the salmon egg. J. Exp. Biol. 52: 291–298.
Luyet, B.J. 1937. The vitrification of organic colloids and of protoplasm. Biodynamica 1(39): 1–14.
Luyet, B.J. and P.M. Gehenio. 1940. Life and Death at Low Temperatures, Biodynamica Press, Normandy, Missouri.
Lynch, D.V., T.-T. Lin, S.P. Myers, S.P. Leibo, R.J. Maclntyre, R.E. Pitt, and P.L. Steponkus. 1989. A two-step method for permeabilization of Drosophila embryos. Cryobiology 26: 445–452.
Maclean, N., D. Penman, and Z. Zhu. 1987. Introduction of novel genes into fish. Bio/Technol. 5: 257–261.
Mann, C.C. 1991. Extinction: Are ecologists crying wolf. Science 253: 736–738.
Marr, D.H.A. 1966. Influence of temperature on the efficiency of growth of salmonid embryos. Nature 212: 957–959.
Massip, A., P. van der Zwalmen, and F. Ectors. 1986. Pregnancies following transfer of cattle embryos preserved by vitrification. Cryo-Letters 7: 270–273.
Mazur, P. 1963. Kinetics of water loss from cells at subzero temperatures and the likelihood of intracellular freezing. J. Gen. Physiol. 47: 347–369.
Mazur, P. 1970. Cryobiology: The freezing of biological systems. Science 168: 939–949.
Mazur, P. 1984. Freezing of living cells: Mechanisms and implications. Amer. J. Physiol. 247C: 125–142.
Mazur, P., K.W. Cole, and A.P. Mahowald. 1991. Critical role of alcohol in the permeabilization of 12-hr Drosophila embryos by alkanes. Cryobiology 28: 524.
Mazur, P., K.W. Cole, P.D. Schreuders, and A.P. Mahowald. 1991. Confirmation of the ability of permeabilized 12-hr Drosophila embryos to survive cooling to-200°C. Cryobiology 28: 524–525.
Mazur, P., R.H. Miller, and S.P. Leibo. 1974. Survival of frozen-thawed bovine red cells as a function of the permeation of glycerol and sucrose. J. Membr. Biology 15: 137–158.
Mazur, P. and R.H. Miller. 1976. Survival of frozen-thawed human red cells as a function of the permeation of glycerol and sucrose. Cryobiology 13: 523–536.
Mazur, P., U. Schneider, and A.P. Mahowald. 1992. Characteristics and kinetics of subzero chilling injury in Drosophila embryos. Cryobiology 29: 39–68.
Myers, S.P., D.V. Lynch, D.C. Knipple, S.P. Leibo, and P.L. Steponkus. 1988. Low-temperature sensitivity of Drosophila melanogaster embryos. Cryobiology 25: 544–545.
Okamoto, S., M. Tanaka, H. Kurokura, and S. Kasahara. 1987. Cryopreservation of parthenogenic eggs of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilia. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 53: 2093.
Polge, C., A.U. Smith, and A.S. Parkes. 1949. Revival of spermatozoa after vitrification and dehydration at low temperatures. Nature 164: 666.
Polge, C., I. Wilmut, and L.E.A. Rowson. 1974. The low temperature preservation of cow, sheep, and pig embryos. Cryobiology 11: 560.
Rall, W.F. 1987. Factors affecting the survival of vitrified mouse embryos. Cryobiology 24: 387–402.
Rall, W.F. 1991a. Guidelines for establishing animal genetic resource banks: Biological materials, management, and facility considerations, in: “Proceedings of the Wild Cattle Symposium,” D. L. Armstrong and T. S. Gross, eds., pp. 96–106, Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska.
Rall, W.F. 1991b. Prospects for the cryopreservation of mammalian spermatozoa by vitrification, in: “Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Supplement 1, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Boar Semen Cryopreservation,” L. A. Johnson and D. Roth, eds., pp. 65–80, Paul Parey Scientific Publishers, Hamburg.
Rall, W.F. and G.M. Fahy. 1985. Ice-free cryopreservation of mouse embryos at-196°C by vitrification. Nature 313: 573–575.
Rall, W.F. and C. Polge. 1984. Effect of warming rate on mouse embryos frozen and thawed in glyceol. J. Reprod. Fertil. 70: 285–292.
Rall, W.F., D.S. Reid, and C. Polge. 1984. Analysis of slow-warming injury of mouse embryos by cryomicroscopical and physio-chemical methods. Cryobiology 21: 106–121.
Schiewe, M.C., W.F. Rall, L.D. Stuart, and D.E. Wildt. 1991. Analysis of cryoprotectant, cooling rate and in situ dilution using conventional freezing or vitrification for cryopreserving sheep embryos. Theriogenology 36: 279–283.
Schneider, U. and P. Mazur. 1984. Osmotic consequences of cryoprotectant permeability and its relation to the survival of frozen-thawed embryos. Theriogenology 21: 68–79.
Smorag, V., B. Gajda, B. Wieczorek, and J. Jura. 1989. Stage-dependence viability of vitrified rabbit embryos. Theriogenology 31: 1227–1231.
Soulé, M.E. 1987. “Viable Populations for Conservation,” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Soulé, M.E. 1991. Conservation: Tactics for a constant crisis. Science 253: 744–750.
Steponkus, P.L., S.P. Myers, D.V. Lynch, L. Gardner, V. Bronshteyn, S.P. Leibo, W.F. Rall, R.E. Pitt, T.-T. Lin, and R.J. Maclntyre. 1990. Cryopreservation of Drosophila melanogaster embryos. Nature 345: 170–172.
Stoss, J. 1983. Fish gamete preservation and spermatozoan physiology, in: “Fish Physiology,” W.S. Hoar, D.J. Randall, and E.M. Donaldson, eds., vol. 9B, pp. 305–350, Academic Press, New York.
Streisinger, G., C. Walker, N. Dover, D. Knauber, and F. Singer. 1981. Production of clones of homozygous diploid zebra fish (Brachydanio rerio). Nature 291: 293–296.
Taylor, R., G.D.J. Adams, C.F.B. Boardman, and R.G. Wallis. 1974. Cryoprotective-permeant vs nonpermeant additives. Cryobiology 11: 430–438.
Uragami, A., A. Sakai, N. Nagai, and T. Takahashi. 1989. Survival of cultured cells and somatic embryos of Asparagus officinalis cryopreserved by vitrification. Plant Cell Rpts. 8: 418–421.
Utter, F.M., O.W. Johnson, G.H. Thorgaard, and P.S. Rabinovitch. 1983. Measurement and potential applications of induced triploidy in Pacific salmon. Aquaculture 33: 329–354.
Whittingham, D.G., S.P. Leibo, and P. Mazur. 1972. Survival of mouse embryos frozen to-196 and-269°C. Science 178: 411–414.
Widmer, B. and W.J. Gehring. 1974. A method for permeabilization of Drosophila eggs. Drosoph. Inform. Serv. 51: 149.
Wilson, E.O. 1988. The current status of biological diversity, in: “Biodiversity,” E. O. Wilson, ed., pp. 3–18, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Winfield, I.J. and J.S. Nelson. 1991. “Cyprinid Fishes: Systematics, Biology and Exploitation, ” Chapman and Hall, London.
Wood, M.J., D.G. Whittingham, and W.F. Rall. 1987. The low temperature preservation of mouse oocytes and embryos, in: “Mammalian Development,” M. Monk, ed., pp. 255–280, IRL Press, Practical Approach Series, Oxford.
Yamamoto, T. 1975. “Medaka (Killifish) Biology and Strains,” Keigaku Publ. Co., Tokyo.
Yuswiati, E. and W. Holtz. 1990. Successful transfer of vitrified goat embryos. Theriogenology 34: 629–631.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rall, W.F. (1993). Advances in the Cryopreservation of Embryos and Prospects for Application to the Conservation of Salmonid Fishes. In: Cloud, J.G., Thorgaard, G.H. (eds) Genetic Conservation of Salmonid Fishes. NATO ASI Series, vol 248. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2866-1_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2866-1_10
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6242-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-2866-1
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive