Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins

  • Chapter
Functional Foods

Abstract

The ingestion of amino acids, peptides, and proteins from a variety of food sources is essential for maintaining health. Humans, as do other animals, use protein chiefly for its amino acid content. Proteins are converted to large and small peptides and individual amino acids by gastric and duodenal proteases (Castro 1991). Large peptides are hydrolyzed to small peptides, usually di- and tripeptides, by intestinal peptidases. Amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides leave the intestine and enter the hepatic portal system, but the peptides leave the liver and enter the peripheral blood as amino acids. The blood transports the amino acids to individual cells where they are placed in a cytosolic “pool.” They are utilized from the “pool” to synthesize proteins essential for growth and maintenance of healthy tissue. The continual hydrolysis and synthesis of proteins is central to their utilization. However, certain proteins and their hydrolytic products also carry out important functions unrelated to their primary metabolic mission.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alexander, J.W., and Gottschlish, M.M. 1990. Nutritional immunomodulation in burn patients. Crit. Care Med. 18: S149–153.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anon. 1992. Highlights of “The nutraceutical initiative: a proposal for economic and regulatory reform.” Food Technol. 4: 77–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ariyoshi, Y. 1993. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors derived from food proteins. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 4: 139–144.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balagot, R.C.; Ehrenpreis, S.; Greenberg, J.; and Hyodo, M. 1983. D-phenylalanine in human chronic pain. In Degradation of Endogenous Opioids: Its Relevance in Human Pathology and Therapy. Vol. 5, S. Ehrenpreis and F. Sicuteri, eds., pp. 207–215. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict, C.R.; Anderson, G.H.; and Sole, M.J. 1983. The influence of oral tyrosine and tryptophan feeding on plasma catecholamines in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 38: 429–435.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berrocal, R.; Chanton, S.; Juillerat, M.A.; Pavillard, B.; Sherz, J.-C.; and Jost, R. 1989. Tryptic phosphopeptides from whole casein. II. Physicochemical properties related to the solubilization of calcium. J. Dairy Res. 56: 335–341.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brantl, V.; Gramsch, C.; Lottspeich, F.; Mertz, R.; Jaeger, K.-H.; and Herz, A. 1986. Novel opioid peptides derived from hemoglobin: Hemorphins. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 125: 309–310.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, M.F.; Cerra, F.; Daly, J.M.; Fischev, J.E.; Moldawer, L.L.; Smith, R.J.; Vinars, E.; Wannemacher, R.; and Young, V.R. 1986. Report of a research workshop: Branched-chain amino acids in stress and injury. J. Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 10: 446–452.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brulé, G.; Roger, L.; Fauquant, J.; and Piot, M. 1982. Phosphopeptides from casein-based material. U.S. Patent 4, 358, 465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, K.K.; Giovannetti, P.M.; Huff, M.W.; Moase, O.; Roberts, D.C.K.; and Wolfe, B.M. 1978. Hypercholesterolemic effect of substituting soybean protein for animal protein in the diet of healthy young women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31: 1312–1321.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, K.K.; Huff, M.W.; and Roberts, D.C.K. 1977. Dietary protein, hypercholesterolemia, and atherosclerosis. In Atherosclerosis IV, G. Schettler, ed., pp. 445–448. New York: Springer Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Castro, G.A. 1991. Digestion and absorption. In Gastrointestinal Physiology. 4th ed., L.R. Johnson, ed., pp. 108–130. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chouinard, G.; Young, S.N.; and Annable, L. 1985. A controlled clinical trial of L-tryptophan in acute mania. Biol. Psychiatry 20: 546–557.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J.R.; Bloom, F.E.; and Roth R.H. 1986. The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cotzias, C.G.; Papavasiliou, P.S.; and Mena, I. 1973. L-m-tyrosine and Parkinsonism. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 223: 83.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry. 1947. The status of methionine in the prevention and treatment of liver injury. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 133: 107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, H.; Vohwinkel, M.; and Rehner, G. 1990. Effect of casein and β-casomorphins on gastrointestinal motility in rats. J. Nutr. 120(3): 252–257.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, L.S. 1985. Administration of aspartate to patients with liver cirrhosis. Clin. Nutr. 4(Suppl.): 88–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernstrom, J.D. 1990. Aromatic amino acids and monoamine synthesis in the central nervous system: Influence of the diet. J. Nutr. Biochem. 1(10): 508–517.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernstrom, J.D. 1991. The influence of dietary protein and amino acids on brain function. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 8: 201–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forsythe, W.A.; Green, M.S.; and Anderson, J.B.B. 1986. Dietary protein effects on cholesterol and lipoprotein concentrations: A review. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 5: 533–549.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fumagalli, R.; Paoletti, R.; and Howard, A.N. 1978. Hypercholesterolemic effect of soya. Life Sci. 22(11): 947–952.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gelenberg, A.J.; Wojcik, J.D.; Falk, W.E.; Baldessarini, R.J.; Zeisel, S.H.; Schoenfeld, D.; and Mok, G.S. 1990. Tyrosine for depression: A double-blind trial. J. Affective Disord. 19: 125–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A.P.; Lim, A.; Kolar, J.B.; Grundhauser, J.J.; Steinke, F.H.; and Schonfeld, G. 1982. Soybean protein independently lowers plasma cholesterol levels in primary hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis 43(2–3): 355–368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamel, V.; Kielwein, G.; and Teschemacher, H. 1985. β-casomorphin immunoreactive material in cows’ milk incubated with various bacteria species. J. Dairy Res. 52: 139–148.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, R.E.; Krehl, W.A.; Stone, D.B.; and Lopez, A. 1967. Dietary carbohydrates and low cholesterol diets: Effects on serum lipids of man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 20(2): 198–208.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huff, M.W.; Hamilton, R.M.G.; and Carroll, K.K. 1977. Plasma cholesterol levels in rabbits fed low fat, cholesterol-free, semipurified diets: Effects of dietary proteins, protein hydrolysates and amino acid mixtures. Atherosclerosis 8: 187–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, R.L.; Morrisett, J.D.; and Gotto, A.M., Jr. 1976. Lipoprotein structure and metabolism. Physiol. Rev. 56(2): 259–316.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger, P.; Portmann, L.; Saunders, A.; Rosenberg, L.E.; and Thier, S.O. 1986. Anticystinuric effects of glutamine and of dietary sodium restriction. N. Engl. J. Med. 315: 1120–1123.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, R.; Nakagi, T.; Saruta, Y.; Suzuki, H.; and Hishikawa, K. 1991. Antihypertensives containing L-arginine or its salts. Japanese Patent 4, 282, 313.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, R.B. 1980. Pain and tryptophan. J. Neurosurg. 53: 44–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kitts, D.D., and Yuan, Y.V. 1992. Caseinophosphopeptides and calcium bioavailability. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2: 31–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korein, J. 1979. Oral L-glutamine well tolerated. N. Engl. J. Med. 301: 1066.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koyuncuoglu, H. 1983. The treatment with L-aspartic acid of persons addicted to opiates. Bull. Narc. 35: 11–15.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kruse, C.A. 1961. Treatment of fatigue with aspartic acid salts. Northwest Med. 60: 597–603.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Life Sciences Research Office. 1992. Safety of amino acids used as dietary supplements. S.A. Anderson and D.J. Raiten, eds., Bethesda: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyapkov, B.G. 1992. Clinical and experimental approaches to studying the hypocholesterolemic effects of soybean proteins. In New Protein Foods in Human Health: Nutrition, Prevention, and Therapy, F.H. Steinke, D.H. Waggle, and M.N. Volgarev, eds., pp. 179–183. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCune, M.A.; Perry, H.O.; Muller, S.A.; and O’Fallon, W.M. 1984. Treatment of recurrent herpes simplex infections with L-lysine monohydrochloride. Cutis 34: 366–373.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meeker, D.R., and Kesten, H.D. 1940. Experimental atherosclerosis and high protein diets. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 45: 543–545.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meeker, D.R., and Kesten, H.D. 1941. Effect of high protein diets on experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits. Arch. Path. 31: 147–162.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meisel, H., and Frister, H. 1988. Chemical characterization of a caseinophosphopeptide from in vivo digests from a casein diet. Biol. Chem. Hoppe-Seyler 369: 1275–1279.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meisel, H., and Frister, H. 1989. Chemical characterization of bioactive peptides from in vivo digests of casein. J. Dairy Res. 56: 343–349.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meisel, H.; Frister, H.; and Schlimme, E. 1989. Biologically active peptides in milk proteins. Z. Ernährungswiss. 28: 267–278.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meisel, H., and Schlimme, E. 1990. Milk proteins: Precursors of bioactive peptides. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 8: 41–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellander, O. 1950. The physiological importance of the casein phosphopeptide calcium salts. II. Peroral calcium dosage in infants. Some aspects of the pathogenesis of rickets. Acta Soc. Med. Ups. 55: 247–255.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendell, J.R.; Griggs, R.C.; Moxley, R.T.; III; Fenichel, G.M.; Brooke, M.H.; Miller, J.P.; Province, M.A.; Dodson, W.E.; and the CIDD Group. 1984. Clinical investigation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. IV. Double-blind controlled trial of leucine. Muscle Nerve 7: 535–541.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, N.H.; Carroll, K.K.; Giovannetti, P.M.; Steinke, F.H.; and Wolfe, B.M. 1987. Effects of human plasma lipids of substituting soybean protein isolate for milk protein in the diet. Nutr. Rep. Int. 35: 279–287.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Migliore-Samour, D., and P. Jolles. 1988. Casein, a prohormone with an immunomodulating role for the newborn? Experientia 44: 188–193.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miyagi, K.; Nakada, F.; and Ohshiro, S. 1979. Effect of glutamine on cystine excretion in a patient with cystinuria. N. Engl. J. Med. 301: 196–198.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mofenson, H.C.; Caraccio, T.R.; and Greensher, J. 1992. Acute poisonings. In Conn’s Current Therapy, R.E. Rakel, ed., pp. 1099–1139. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mouret, J.; Lemoine, P.; Sanchez, P.; Robelin, N.; Taillard, J.; and Canini, F. 1988. Treatment of narcolepsy with L-tyrosine. Lancet 2: 1458–1459.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mudge, G.H. 1985. Agents affecting volume and composition of body fluids. In The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, A.G. Gilman, L.S. Goodman, T.W. Rall, and F. Murad, eds., New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muramoto, M., and Kawamura, Y. 1991. Properties of rice proteins and angiotensinconverting enzyme-inhibiting peptides from proteins. Shokuhin Kogyo 34(22): 18–26.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nemzer, E.D.; Arnold, L.E.; Votolato, N.A.; and McConnell, H. 1986. Amino acid supplementation as therapy for attention deficit disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 25: 509–513.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, F.; Migliore-Samour, D.; Floc’h, F.; Zerial, A.; Werner, G.H.; Jollès, J.; Casaretto, M.; Zahn, H.; and Jollès, P. 1984. Immunostimulating hexapeptide from human casein: amino acid sequence, synthesis and biological properties. Eur. J. Biochem. 145: 677–682.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patten, B.M., and Klein, L.M. 1988. L-threonine and the modification of ALS. Neurology 38(Suppl. l): 354–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Physicians’ Desk Reference. 1993. 47th ed. Montvale: Medical Economics Data.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinals, R.S.; Harris, E.D.; Burnett, J.B.; and Gerber, D.A. 1977. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with L-histidine: A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. J. Rheumatol. 4: 414–419.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott, L.F., and Critchley, J.A.J.H. 1983. The treatment of acetaminophen poisoning. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 23: 87–101.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, J.E.F., ed. 1982. Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia. 28th ed. London: Pharmaceutical Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, W.A.; Stegink, L.D.; Filer, L.J., Jr.; and Renn, E. 1980. Aspartame administration to the infant monkey: Hypothalmic morphology and plasma amino acid levels. Anat. Rec. 198(1): 73–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rombeau, J.L. 1990. A review of the effects of glutamine-enriched diets on experimentally induced enterocolitis. J. Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 14: 100S-105S.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan-Harshman, M.; Leiter, L.A.; and Anderson, G.H. 1987. Phenylalanine and aspartame fail to alter feeding behavior, mood and arousal in men. Physiol. Behav. 39: 247–253.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saito, Y.; Kawato, S.; Abe, Y.; and Imayasu, S. 1991. Oral angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors for hypertension control. Japanese Patent 4, 279, 529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato, R.; Noguchi, T.; and Naito, H. 1986. Casein phosphopeptide (CPP) enhances calcium adsorption from the ligated segment of rat small intestine. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 32: 67–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider-Helmert, D., and Spinweber, C.L. 1986. Evaluation of L-tryptophan for treatment of insomnia: A review. Psychopharmacology 89: 1–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, S.; Stoch, R.; Marcus, R.; and Jackson, E. 1982. Alteration of human pain thresholds by nutritional manipulation and L-tryptophan supplementation. Pain 13: 385–393.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, C.A.; van Melle, G.D.; and Ramelet, A.A. 1985. Failure of lysine in frequently recurrent herpes simplex infection. Arch. Dermatol. 121: 167–168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Souba, W.W.; Smith, R.J.; and Wilmore, D.W. 1985. Glutamine metabolism by the intestinal tract. J. Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 9: 608.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stegink, L.D.; Filer, L.J., Jr.; and Baker, G.L. 1981. Plasma and erythrocyte concentrations of free amino acids in adult humans administered abuse doses of aspartame. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 7(2): 291–305.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sugano, M.; Ishiwaki, N.; Nagata, Y.; and Imaizumi, K. 1982. Effects of arginine and lysine addition to casein and soya-bean protein on serum lipids, apolipoproteins, insulin and glucagon in rats. Br. J. Nutr. 48(2): 211–221.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vale, J. A.; Meredith, T.J.; and Goulding, R. 1981. Treatment of acetaminophen poisoning. Arch. Intern. Med. 141: 394–396.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Praag, H.M., and Lemus, C. 1986. Monoamine precursors in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. In Nutrition and the Brain. Vol. 7, R.J. Wurtman and J.J. Wurtman, eds., pp. 89–138. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, N.E.; Ramamurthy, S.; Schoenfeld, L.; and Hoffman, J. 1986. Analgesic effectiveness of D-phenylalanine in chronic pain patients. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 67: 436–439.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Widhalm, K. 1986. Effects of diet on serum cholesterol lipids and lipoproteins in hypercholesterolemic children. In Nutritional Effects of Cholesterol Metabolism, A.C. Beyen, ed., pp. 133–140. Transmondial Voorhuzen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D.R.; Reimherr, F.W.; and Wender, P.H. 1985. Treatment of attention deficit disorder with DL-phenylalanine. Psychiatry Res. 16: 21–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. 1985. Energy and protein requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/UN Expert Consultation. Technical Report Series No. 724. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, S.N. 1986. The clinical psychopharmacology of tryptophan. In Nutrition and the Brain. Vol. 7, R.J. Wurtman and J.J. Wurtman, eds., pp. 49–88. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, S.N. 1987. Facts and myths related to the use and regulation of phenylalanine and other amino acids. In Dietary Phenylalanine and Brain Function, R.J. Wurtman and E. Ritter-Walker, eds., pp. 341–347. Boston: Birkäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, Y.V., and Kitts, D.D. 1991. Confirmation of calcium absorption and femoral utilization in spontaneously hypertensive rats fed casein phosphopeptide diets. Nutr. Res. 11(11): 1257–1272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, Y.V.; Kitts, D.D.; Nagasawa, T.; and Nakai, S. 1991. Paracellular calcium absorption, femur mineralization and biomechanics in rats fed selected dietary proteins. Food Chem. 39: 125–137.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zametkin, A.J.; Karoum, F.; and Rapoport, J.L. 1987. Treatment of hyperactive children with D-phenylalanine. Am. J. Psychiatry 144: 792–794.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zioudrou, C.; Streaty, R.A.; and Klee, W.A. 1979. Opioid peptides derived from food proteins. The exorphins. J. Biol. Chem. 254(7): 2446–2449.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Wayne E. Marshall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Israel Goldberg

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Marshall, W.E. (1994). Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins. In: Goldberg, I. (eds) Functional Foods. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2073-3_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2073-3_12

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-5861-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-2073-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation