Abstract
Despite antiretroviral therapy, lung disease is a leading cause of death in individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV). Individuals infected with HIV are susceptible to serious bacterial and viral infections, such as pneumococcus and influenza, which are particularly problematic for lung health, resulting in lung injury. Additionally, HIV-infected individuals are susceptible to a number of pulmonary diseases for unknown reasons. Alcohol, the most commonly abused drug in the world, continues to exact an enormous toll on morbidity and mortality in individuals living with HIV. Chronic alcohol abuse has been shown to affect lung immunity, resulting in significant lung injury. There is a paucity of literature on the additive effects of HIV and alcohol, two diseases of immune senescence, in the lung. This chapter begins by discussing the latest literature evaluating the epidemiology of HIV, alcohol use, and lung health focusing on two prevalent infections, tuberculosis and pneumococcal pneumonia. In parallel, we discuss the interactions of alcohol and HIV on the risk for acute lung injury and subsequent morbidity and mortality. We then discuss the pathophysiology of how these two diseases of immune dysfunction affect the lung, with a focus on the oxidative stress, alveolar macrophage host immune capacity, and immunomodulatory role of zinc in the airway. Finally, we review the latest literature on how HIV and alcohol affect other pulmonary disorders including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary hypertension, and lung cancer.
You have full access to this open access chapter, Download chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
Overview
HIV/AIDS is a disease that continues to be of paramount global importance. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimate that approximately one million people are living with HIV in the United States and approximately 20 % are unaware that they are infected [1]. Additionally and Prevention, in the past decade the number of people living with HIV has increased considerably. Prior to the widespread use of antiretroviral therapy (ART), pulmonary diseases, especially lung infections, were among the most frequent complications in individuals with HIV and were associated with significant morbidity and mortality [2]. However, even in the era of ART, individuals living with HIV continue to suffer from pulmonary diseases including bacterial pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pulmonary hypertension. Alcohol is the most widely used drug in the world. Chronic alcohol abuse continues to result in increased morbidity and mortality, exacting a tremendous burden on society. Chronic alcohol abuse can affect a number of organ systems including the lung resulting in increased susceptibility to infection and injury. However, there is a paucity of literature examining the compound effects of alcohol and HIV, two diseases of immune senescence, in the lung. This chapter presents epidemiology and pathophysiology of how HIV infection and alcohol use affect lung immunity and discusses other clinical syndromes that are also affected by the interactions of alcohol and HIV.
Part 1: Epidemiology of HIV, Alcohol Abuse, and Lung Health
HIV, Alcohol, and Lung Infection: Tuberculosis
Worldwide, tuberculosis remains one of the most important causes of death from an infectious disease [3]. The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis has complicated the efforts at control for this disease. The HIV epidemic has led to an increase in the incidence of tuberculosis globally. At least one-third of HIV-infected persons worldwide are infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and 8–10 % of them develop active disease annually [4]. In the United States, there has been a progressive decrease in rates of active tuberculosis and only 10 % of patients are coinfected with HIV [5]. Coinfection results in difficult issues in diagnosis and treatment, especially because of drug interactions and complications related to immune reconstitution [6, 7]. Numerous studies have documented the increased risk of TB disease among HIV-infected compared to non-infected persons. Among the HIV-infected population, low CD4 counts and high viral loads have been found to be further risk factors for disease, while treatment with effective ART reduces risk.
The association of alcoholism and TB has been known for decades, but only one systematic review has examined this association [8]. In the 21 studies identified, all forms of TB disease were about three times higher, and pulmonary TB was four times more frequent, in heavy drinkers (>40 g of alcohol per day) than in controls. It is likely that adverse effects of alcohol on the immune system and increased patterns of transmission because of social interactions are both important in this increase. Further, excessive alcohol use complicates (and often decreases) adherence to the TB treatment regimen [9].
Alcohol-use disorders have been related to the acquisition and progression of HIV disease as well as to the adherence and immunologic response to ART [10–14]. A systematic review and meta-analysis of African studies documented a similar association between HIV and alcohol use [15]. Lower CD4 counts have been associated with alcohol consumption, especially in patients not on ART [16]. In addition, a recent model demonstrated that alcohol is a modifiable risk factor for poor survival among individuals with HIV [17]. These effects can be attributed biologically to the alcohol itself and not simply to related factors such as malnutrition, as chronic binge alcohol consumption accelerates progression of simian immunodeficiency virus disease in a primate model [18].
The risks of bacterial pneumonia and COPD are elevated among those with HIV infection compared to uninfected individuals, even after adjustment for smoking exposure [19, 20]. Alcohol impacts both innate and adaptive immune responses leading to immunosuppression [21], so it would be likely that the association of alcohol and HIV would increase the risk of tuberculosis.
Limited clinical data are available to define the interactions of alcohol, HIV, and tuberculosis. Patients diagnosed with TB have higher alcohol intake than persons without TB [8, 22–24]. HIV-infected patients have higher alcohol consumption than non-HIV-infected patients, and patients coinfected with TB and HIV have higher alcohol consumption than either TB- or HIV-infected patients [25–27]. A study in Botswana found that patients with MDR-TB had high rates of alcohol use and abuse. Further, among TB patients alcohol abuse was associated with a diagnosis of MDR-TB [28]. Recently, alcohol abuse was found to be an independent risk factor for poor outcomes in patients treated for MDR-TB [29].
Overall, there is convincing evidence that HIV and alcohol independently affect lung function and response to infection. These interactions appear to be complex and have yet to be sorted out completely, but it is clear that they contribute to an increased incidence of TB infection, a decreased response to therapy, and, as a consequence, an apparent increase in TB mortality.
HIV, Alcohol, and Lung Infection: Streptococcus Pneumoniae (Pneumoccocus)
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a leading cause of overall death worldwide [30–34]. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is associated with more severe forms of pneumonia and is one of the main organisms leading to hospitalization in all groups [35]. However, pneumococcal disease has been shown to be higher in persons with underlying medical conditions (such as HIV), with low socioeconomic status, or who engage in high-risk behaviors such as cigarette smoking, intravenous drug use, and alcohol abuse [36–40]. In fact, recurrent bacterial pneumonia has been considered an AIDS-defining illness since the expanded European definition was adopted in 1993 [41].
In the VACS-3 (Veterans Aging 3 Site Cohort Study), a large study of 881 HIV-infected veterans enrolled between 1999 and 2000, there was a significant association between obstructive lung disease and bacterial pneumonia, and these two diseases demonstrated a linear association with the level of alcohol use (OR 1.4 for bacterial pneumonia, p < 0.001 for level of alcohol use). In this cohort, approximately 67 % were current users and of these, 41 % drank in moderation, 23 % drank hazardously, and 35 % carried a diagnosis of abuse or dependence. The degree of alcohol use varied by demographic and HIV-related factors, and antiviral therapy (ART) did not vary significantly by alcohol use. When considering timing of alcohol consumption, past consumption demonstrated an equivalent or a higher prevalence of disease than did current consumption, so the authors concluded that past consumers were somehow different than lifetime abstainers. Associations of medical disease with alcohol use were independent of age, CD4 cell count, viral load, intravenous drug use, smoking, and exercise. Consequently, the authors concluded that there was no evidence of a “safe” level of consumption of alcohol among those with HIV infection [20]. Using 1999 and 2000 data from Active Bacterial Core surveillance and the National Health Interview Survey, Kyaw et al. determined the rates of invasive pneumococcal disease in healthy adults and in adults with high-risk conditions and found that, compared with healthy adults, the risk of invasive pneumococcal disease was 11-fold higher for those that abused alcohol and 23–48-fold higher in adults with HIV/AIDS [42]. The risk also increased with the number of conditions present, suggesting that the combination of HIV/AIDS and alcohol had compounding effects on the risk of pneumonia [42]. Murdoch et al. showed in an observational cohort of 300 HIV-infected individuals receiving care between 1996 and 2005 that a high proportion (60 %) reported prior and/or current alcohol abuse [43]. Multivariate analyses showed that younger age, alcohol use, lack of ART use, lower CD4 counts, and higher HIV RNA were independent predictors of pneumonia. Most recently, Crothers et al. analyzed data from the VACS virtual cohort of 33,420 HIV-infected veterans and 66,840 age-, sex-, race-, and site-matched uninfected control subjects to determine the incidence of pulmonary diseases in HIV-infected persons compared with non-HIV persons. They found that, even in the era of ART, HIV infection increased the risk of bacterial pneumonia ~7-fold (7.5 % vs. 1.1 %, p < 0.001) and alcohol disorders were significantly more common among HIV-infected individuals compared to the control subjects (p < 0.001) [44].
These studies confirm that although ART has substantially decreased opportunistic infections associated with HIV infection, pneumonias from routine pathogens such as pneumococcus continue to be prevalent in these susceptible individuals, and alcohol abuse may have a compounding effect. Additionally, bacterial pneumonia can result in worse outcomes in HIV-infected individuals who abuse alcohol. Large multicenter observational studies have shown that HIV-infected individuals hospitalized with pneumococcal pneumonia have significantly higher 14-day mortality, with a trend for the highest mortality in those with lower CD4 counts, compared to uninfected individuals after controlling for age and severity of illness [45]. Additionally, HIV-infected individuals with cirrhosis and a history of heavy alcohol abuse have increased mortality and increased hospitalizations from community-acquired pneumonia compared to HIV-infected individuals without cirrhosis. In this setting, excessive alcohol intake and hepatitis C coinfection are the most important causes of chronic liver disease in persons living with HIV [46]. These studies suggest that alcohol-use disorders are common in HIV-infected individuals and that the two diseases affect lung function and immunity, resulting in varied responses to infection and therapy.
HIV, Alcohol, and Lung Injury
In the last 10 years, evidence has shown that alcohol abuse significantly increases the risk of a serious life-threatening illness known as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Characterized by alveolar cell barrier dysfunction and inflammation, ARDS can cause profound derangements in gas exchange with subsequent severe hypoxemia, respiratory failure, and death. Our group at Emory University first identified an independent association between alcohol abuse and ARDS [47]. Further preclinical studies have confirmed that chronic alcohol ingestion renders the lung susceptible to injury [48, 49]. Critical care outcomes have improved among HIV-infected persons due to advances in HIV therapy. ART has decreased morbidity and mortality [50–52], and overall ICU and hospital mortality associated with critical illness in HIV-infected individuals has decreased [53–57]. However, given the high prevalence of alcohol-use disorders in this population and the likelihood that these individuals will not adhere to ART and other HIV therapies, there is an increased likelihood of worsened outcomes in HIV-infected persons who abuse alcohol. Palepu et al. prospectively analyzed a database of 7,015 index ICU admissions at two teaching hospitals in Canada, of which 4.4 % where HIV infected and 56 % of these patients had a history of drug and alcohol dependence. In contrast, only 7.4 % of the HIV-negative patients had a history of drug and alcohol dependence. Using multivariate regression, the authors found that a history of alcohol dependence, regardless of HIV status, was not associated with hospital mortality after adjusting for age, sex, APACHE II scores (an index of acute and chronic health stresses), and acute overdose diagnosis. In contrast, HIV infection was strongly associated with increased hospital mortality [58]. Further, other studies have shown that HIV infection independently increased mortality in patients with acute lung injury [59, 60].
HIV, Alcohol, and Outcomes
Alcohol use is well known to have comorbid effects on multiple medical diseases. Since many people living with HIV drink alcohol, it is likely that many comorbid diseases would be more common or worse in patients with both conditions. The Veterans Aging Cohort Study (VACS) has focused on the importance of alcohol use among persons with HIV infection. An early study of 881 HIV-infected subjects with strict definitions of alcohol use documented that hepatitis C, hypertension, diabetes, COPD, candidiasis, and bacterial pneumonia were all associated with alcohol use, and several of these diseases demonstrated a linear association with the degree of alcohol ingestion [20]. In an echocardiographic study of 196 asymptomatic HIV-infected individuals, alcohol use was found to be an independent risk factor of left ventricular diastolic function [61]. In a VACS study examining the incidence and severity of COPD in HIV-infected subjects, alcohol abuse as defined by ICD-9 codes, had an independent elevated odds ratio (1.46), although this did not reach statistical significance.
The rates and causes of mortality among HIV-infected individuals have evolved over the years. Although there are controversies about defining causes of death in HIV-infected persons [62], overall mortality rates have decreased markedly since 1996 with the advent of ART [52], and deaths specifically due to AIDS-defining illnesses and tumors have also declined [63, 64].
The precise influence of alcohol use on these trends in comorbidities and mortality is difficult to quantify. Relatively few studies have examined the independent effect of alcohol use on mortality, but it is likely that excessive alcohol use would affect deaths from liver disease, certain malignancies, pulmonary disease, and violence. An analysis of deaths in the CDC HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) found a univariate hazard ratio of 1.20 (not statistically significant) for a history of all substance abuse, including alcohol [65]. An early study from VACS found that current or former alcohol use was not associated with increased mortality [66]. In contrast, excess mortality (HR 1.65) was described among HIV-infected patients diagnosed with substance abuse disorders, including alcohol dependence/abuse only, in a large study of deaths in the Kaiser Permanente Northern California health plan [67]. Consistent with those observations, an analysis of deaths in HIV-infected persons in France in 2005 found that alcohol consumption >50 g/day was independently associated with mortality [68].
Several studies from the aforementioned VACS have evaluated the “VACS Index” as a predictor of mortality. The original validation of the index included alcohol use, but this variable did not contribute to discriminatory value. This index now uses HIV biomarkers (CD4, HIV viral load, and AIDS opportunistic infections) and non-HIV biomarkers (hemoglobin, transaminases, platelets, creatinine, and hepatitis C serology). It is likely that alcohol use is nevertheless a factor, especially in the non-HIV biomarkers, but as currently applied alcohol use does not independently predict mortality in this index [69].
A different approach to assessing causes of premature death is the calculation of expected years of life lost. This was assessed in San Francisco using death registry data and population estimates in 2003–2004. Using this method, the leading causes of premature death among men were HIV/AIDS and alcohol-use disorders [70].
Part 2: Pathophysiology of How HIV and Alcohol Affect Lung Immunity
Oxidative Stress
Oxidative stress refers to a disruption in the oxidant/antioxidant balance and is an important component of cell injury in both HIV- and alcohol-related disorders. Oxidative stress can be generated from a number of different mechanisms including relative oxidation of extracellular thiol disulfide pairs such as glutathione/glutathione disulfide (GSH/GSSG) and cysteine/cystine (Cys/CySS) and the generation of reactive oxygen species by enzymes such as NADPH oxidase [71, 72]. Chronic HIV infection alone has been known to cause significant oxidative stress systemically, both in preclinical [73–75] and clinical studies [76–78]. GSH levels were found to be decreased greater than 90 % in HIV transgenic rats compared to wild-type rats, and the GSSG/GSH ratios were increased threefold [75]. In response to endotoxemia induced by intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide instillation, HIV-infected animals also have decreased GSH, increased nitric oxide metabolites, and increased superoxide anion production [73]. Clinically, plasma cysteine levels were significantly lower in HIV-infected subjects compared to control subjects [78], and several studies have shown that HIV-infected individuals have disturbances in GSH redox balance [79–81]. GSH deficiency has even been associated with impaired survival in HIV-infected subjects [82]. Chronic alcohol consumption is known to cause deleterious effects on host defense and immune responses. Alcohol toxicity has also been associated with oxidative stress and free radical-mediated injury [83, 84] and lipid peroxidation [85]. Additionally, alcoholics have also been shown to have considerably lower levels of other antioxidants, including vitamin E and selenium [86].
The compound effects of HIV infection and alcohol use with respect to oxidant/antioxidant balance have been noted in some studies. Bautista et al. demonstrated in a simian model of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and alcohol intoxication enhanced reactive oxygen species formation by Kupffer cells and endothelial cells [87]. The liver is a major organ for clearance of microbial particles because of the preponderance of tissue Kupffer cells or macrophages. During HIV infection or prolonged alcohol use, Kupffer cells can produce a wide array of inflammatory substances while also serving as scavenger cells. Alcohol can enhance the body’s susceptibility to retrovirus infection, thus increasing the progression to AIDS [88]. Alcohol-induced alterations in signal transduction may also lead to host immune dysregulation. Helper T (Th) cells produce a number of cytokines that modulate the immune system. Retrovirus infection has been known to cause abnormal cytokine production, such as increases in IL-4 and IL-5, which results in a switch from a Th1 to a Th2 response. These changes have resulted in a progression to AIDS, defined by a decline in T-cell production [89]. In a murine model of AIDS, Wang et al. found that elevated levels of Th2 cytokines were further increased by alcohol consumption [90]. Additionally, release of IL-2, normally suppressed in murine AIDS, was further suppressed with alcohol [91]. These results suggest that chronic alcohol consumption could exacerbate the Th1/Th2 imbalance seen in AIDS. The role of antioxidant defense mechanisms to protect against oxidative stress is well characterized in the liver, and the effects of alcohol in altering oxidant/antioxidant systems in the liver are also well known. Although the exact effects of HIV on this system are unknown, there are several antioxidant defense systems that could be altered by both alcohol and HIV, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. Chen et al. investigated the effects of chronic alcohol ingestion on antioxidant defenses in mice infected with retrovirus, which causes an AIDS-like disease [92]. They found that alcohol and murine AIDS alone caused specific effects on antioxidant mechanisms, but the combination led to more severe effects with respect to liver GSH levels and superoxide dismutase. The mechanism of this observed synergistic effect of alcohol and HIV infection is unclear at this time. It is possible that the virus leads to higher alcohol concentrations, as was seen in a previous animal study [92], and thereby potentiates alcohol toxicity or that HIV inhibits pathways of alcohol metabolism.
Specifically with respect to the lung, HIV infection and chronic alcohol abuse have been individually associated with oxidative stress. Our research group at Emory University has been instrumental in many studies examining the effects of alcohol abuse on lung immune function [48, 93–95]. Specifically, we have shown that chronic alcohol ingestion causes oxidative stress as reflected by GSH deficiency and epithelial barrier dysfunction in both preclinical and clinical studies. With respect to HIV infection, our group identified that chronic HIV transgene expression in animal models causes significant alveolar oxidative stress, as reflected by a greater than 90 % decrease in GSH levels, and a threefold increase in GSSG/GSH ratios [74]. Others have also shown similar results [73, 96]. In clinical studies, the results have been somewhat less conclusive. Pacht et al. reported that the concentration of GSH in the epithelial lining fluid was similar between HIV-infected and non-infected subjects [97]; however, these same authors demonstrated in a small study of 33 HIV-infected subjects that GSH levels in the epithelial lining fluid were significantly decreased over time [98]. Others have also shown that HIV-infected subjects had a deficiency of GSH in the lung [99, 100], but these studies have involved small number of subjects. Our group determined that chronic alcohol ingestion exacerbated defects in alveolar epithelial permeability and lung water clearance in HIV-1 transgenic rats [101]. Additionally, cultured alveolar epithelial cells from alcohol-fed HIV-1 transgenic rats had increased paracellular permeability to sucrose. This dysfunction correlated with alterations in the expression of tight junction proteins. These effects appeared to be mediated by oxidative stress as alveolar epithelial barrier function and tight junction protein localization were restored by supplementation with procysteine, a GSH precursor.
Taken together, there is now considerable experimental evidence and corresponding circumstantial clinical evidence that dietary alcohol consumption after or prior to HIV infection exacerbates the immune dysfunction already seen in AIDS. Further investigation is necessary to evaluate these effects, particularly within the lung.
The Alveolar Macrophage
As mentioned previously, chronic alcohol abuse often coexists with HIV disease, and therefore, it is important to understand the interaction of these two immunosuppressing conditions. The host immune defense system in the lung against infection and other toxins involves both innate and adaptive immune responses. Our group at Emory University has studied macrophage function in both preclinical and clinical models of HIV and chronic alcohol abuse. We found that both transgenic expression of HIV-related proteins and chronic alcohol ingestion decreased granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor membrane expression, a necessary factor for macrophage function [102, 103]. Further, treatment with recombinant GM-CSF can restore functions of both alveolar macrophages and the epithelium [104]. Alveolar macrophage phagocytosis of microbial pathogens is also decreased by HIV infection [105, 106].
Few studies have evaluated the additive effects of chronic alcohol ingestion and HIV on alveolar macrophage function. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) serves as an important mediator in the pro-inflammatory response of the host to an invading pathogen [107]. Numerous studies have shown that neutralization of TNF-α impairs clearance of a variety of microorganisms including S. pneumoniae and M. tuberculosis [108, 109]. Stoltz et al. conducted a study to determine the effects of alcohol and SIV on alveolar macrophage TNF-α production and found that alveolar macrophages from SIV-infected nonhuman primates had a depressed response and that alcohol ingestion further suppressed the TNF-α response by approximately 50 % [110]. Because of the vital role of TNF-α in generating an effective immune response, these results suggest that alcohol abuse may further impair host immune defense in HIV-infected individuals. Others have also reported decreased TNF-α production by alveolar macrophages from subjects with HIV [111] and alcohol [112]. Nelson et al. utilized the macaque SIV infection model to examine the effect of chronic alcohol feeding on SIV burden during the course of S. pneumoniae infection and found that the chronic alcohol-fed macaques showed a prolonged increase in SIV RNA in their lungs [113]. Additionally, alveolar macrophages from these alcohol-fed animals had greater nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-ΚB) activation. This study suggests that chronic alcohol abuse results in increased SIV replication within the lung and it is possible that increased NF-ΚB activation is part of the mechanism.
Zinc
Zinc is an essential micronutrient that plays an important role in numerous biological processes and is the focus of an earlier chapter in this book. Specifically, zinc is crucial for immune function and the catalytic functions of ~300 enzymes, and its deficiency is an important driver of oxidative stress [114]. Studies have shown that alcoholism causes systemic alterations in zinc metabolism [115, 116]. Further, there is evidence that chronic alcoholism alters zinc bioavailability in the lung and may be an important mechanism by which chronic alcohol exposure predisposes individuals to pulmonary infection and acute lung injury [117, 118]. Recent experimental evidence has demonstrated that the HIV phenotype is characterized by a similar state of zinc deficiency and immune dysfunction within the alveolar space [119, 120]. This zinc-depleted state contributes to further immune dysfunction in a host that is already compromised by HIV. While there have been no studies to determine the combined effect of alcohol and HIV, it stands to reason that zinc deficiency and its consequences would be much more severe among HIV-infected individuals who suffer from alcohol-use disorders.
Part 3: HIV and Other Pulmonary Syndromes
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
COPD is one of the most prevalent comorbid diseases in HIV-infected individuals and is diagnosed in 12–15 % under medical care [20]. As mentioned previously, COPD is more common in HIV-infected compared to non-infected persons, and this association is linearly associated with the degree of alcohol use. COPD presents at an earlier age, with fewer pack-years of smoking, and is more prevalent in HIV-infected individuals than in uninfected individuals [19]. In addition, a high HIV viral load and a low CD4 cell count were associated with an increased prevalence of spirometry-defined obstructive lung disease in a cohort at risk for COPD and HIV infection [121]. Unfortunately, no assessment of alcohol use was reported in this study. In parallel, other studies have suggested that HIV may also be associated with an increased risk for several different manifestations of airway and obstructive lung disease, including features of emphysema [122, 123], chronic bronchitis [124], nonspecific airway disease or bronchial hyper-responsiveness (such as is seen in asthma) [125, 126], and bronchiectasis [127]; nonspecific focal air trapping with decreased expiratory flow rates [128] and bronchial dilatation [129] have also been described. Taken together, the evidence suggests that HIV exacerbates the effects of smoking on the development of COPD, but at present there is no evidence that alcohol abuse adds to this risk.
Pulmonary Hypertension
Primary pulmonary hypertension was first described in HIV-infected persons in 1990 [130], and it has been found to be more common in HIV-infected compared to uninfected persons [131]. Improved hemodynamics and survival from pulmonary hypertension have been described in patients on ART [132]. In a cross-sectional study of 116 HIV-infected outpatients, echocardiographic manifestations of pulmonary hypertension were common and associated with respiratory symptoms, more advanced HIV disease, airway obstruction, abnormal diffusion capacity, and systemic and pulmonary inflammation [133].
Lung Cancer
Compared with the general population, lung cancer risk was found to be elevated in a cohort of almost 400,000 persons with HIV from 11 US regions [134]. This increased risk was found to be independent of smoking [135]. In a large VA study comparing HIV-infected to uninfected veterans, HIV infection was found to be an independent risk factor for lung cancer after controlling for potential confounders including smoking [136]. In this study, alcohol abuse, defined by ICD9 codes, was not independently associated with lung cancer. Outcomes for patients with lung cancer were initially found to be poor and related to low CD4 counts [137]. In the large Swiss cohort study, lung cancer was not clearly associated with immunodeficiency but was attributable mainly to heavy smoking [138]. A recent report found no significant difference in clinical outcome between patients with HIV and uninfected controls with non-small-cell lung cancer, including those with curative surgical resection in early-stage disease [139]. These data suggested that HIV status should not affect therapeutic decision making.
Summary
Alcohol abuse is a common problem among individuals living with HIV, and there is considerable experimental and clinical evidence showing that chronic alcohol use accelerates HIV progression and increases the risk of opportunistic and non-opportunistic infections. Alcohol abuse also decreases adherence to medical regimens including the consistent use of ART, which only further exacerbates the HIV infection. Alcohol abuse and HIV each imposes oxidative stress and zinc deficiency within the lung and together cause severe lung epithelial and macrophage dysfunction. Therefore, it is critically important that alcohol-use disorders be identified and treated whenever possible in the care of an individual living with HIV.
References
Monitoring Selected National HIV Prevention and Care Objectives by Using HIV Surveillance Data—United States and 6 U.S. Dependent Areas—2010: CDC; Volume 17 (No. 3, Part A); 2012
Murray JF, Mills J. Pulmonary infectious complications of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Part I. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;141:1356–72.
Lawn SD, Zumla AI. Tuberculosis. Lancet. 2011;378:57–72.
Substantial increases in HIV prevention efforts producing results, but not enough to turn back the epidemic. 2008. Available from: http://data.unaids.org/pub/globalreport/2008/080725_gr08_pressrelease_en.pdf
Gordin FM, Masur H. Current approaches to tuberculosis in the united states. JAMA. 2012;308:283–9.
Swaminathan S, Padmapriyadarsini C, Narendran G. HIV-associated tuberculosis: clinical update. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1377–86.
Khan FA, Minion J, Pai M, Royce S, Burman W, Harries AD, Menzies D. Treatment of active tuberculosis in HIV-coinfected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1288–99.
Lonnroth K, Williams BG, Stadlin S, Jaramillo E, Dye C. Alcohol use as a risk factor for tuberculosis - a systematic review. BMC Pub Health. 2008;8:289.
Creswell J, Raviglione M, Ottmani S, Migliori GB, Uplekar M, Blanc L, Sotgiu G, Lonnroth K. Tuberculosis and noncommunicable diseases: neglected links and missed opportunities. Eur Respir J. 2011;37:1269–82.
Chander G, Lau B, Moore RD. Hazardous alcohol use: a risk factor for non-adherence and lack of suppression in HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:411–7.
Conen A, Fehr J, Glass TR, Furrer H, Weber R, Vernazza P, Hirschel B, Cavassini M, Bernasconi E, Bucher HC, Battegay M, Swiss HIVCS. Self-reported alcohol consumption and its association with adherence and outcome of antiretroviral therapy in the Swiss HIV cohort study. Antivir Ther. 2009;14:349–57.
Lucas GM, Gebo KA, Chaisson RE, Moore RD. Longitudinal assessment of the effects of drug and alcohol abuse on HIV-1 treatment outcomes in an urban clinic. AIDS. 2002; 16:767–74.
Neuman MG, Schneider M, Nanau RM, Parry C. Alcohol consumption, progression of disease and other comorbidities, and responses to antiretroviral medication in people living with HIV. AIDS Res Treat. 2012;2012:751827.
Petry NM. Alcohol use in HIV patients: what we don’t know may hurt us. Int J STD AIDS. 1999;10:561–70.
Fisher JC, Bang H, Kapiga SH. The association between HIV infection and alcohol use: a systematic review and meta-analysis of African studies. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:856–63.
Samet JH, Cheng DM, Libman H, Nunes DP, Alperen JK, Saitz R. Alcohol consumption and HIV disease progression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:194–9.
Braithwaite RS, Conigliaro J, Roberts MS, Shechter S, Schaefer A, McGinnis K, Rodriguez MC, Rabeneck L, Bryant K, Justice AC. Estimating the impact of alcohol consumption on survival for HIV + individuals. AIDS Care. 2007;19:459–66.
Bagby GJ, Zhang P, Purcell JE, Didier PJ, Nelson S. Chronic binge ethanol consumption accelerates progression of simian immunodeficiency virus disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006;30:1781–90.
Crothers K, Butt AA, Gibert CL, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Crystal S, Justice AC, Veterans Aging Cohort 5 Project T. Increased COPD among HIV-positive compared to HIV-negative veterans. Chest. 2006;130:1326–33.
Justice AC, Lasky E, McGinnis KA, Skanderson M, Conigliaro J, Fultz SL, Crothers K, Rabeneck L, Rodriguez-Barradas M, Weissman SB, Bryant K, Team VP. Medical disease and alcohol use among veterans with human immunodeficiency infection: a comparison of disease measurement strategies. Med Care. 2006;44:S52–60.
Szabo G, Mandrekar P. A recent perspective on alcohol, immunity, and host defense. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2009;33:220–32.
Macintyre K, Bloss E. Alcohol brewing and the African tuberculosis epidemic. Med Anthropol. 2011;30:126–35.
Shin SS, Mathew TA, Yanova GV, Fitzmaurice GM, Livchits V, Yanov SA, Strelis AK, Mishustin SP, Bokhan NA, Lastimoso CS, Connery HS, Hart JE, Greenfield SF. Alcohol consumption among men and women with tuberculosis in Tomsk, Russia. Cent Eur J Pub Health. 2010;18:132–8.
Suhadev M, Thomas BE, Raja Sakthivel M, Murugesan P, Chandrasekaran V, Charles N, Durga R, Auxilia M, Mathew TA, Wares F. Alcohol use disorders (AUD) among tuberculosis patients: a study from Chennai, South India. PLoS One. 2011;6:e19485.
Kalichman SC, Simbayi LC, Kaufman M, Cain D, Jooste S. Alcohol use and sexual risks for HIV/aids in Sub-Saharan Africa: systematic review of empirical findings. Prevent Sci. 2007;8:141–51.
Weiser SD, Leiter K, Heisler M, McFarland W, Percy-de Korte F, DeMonner SM, Tlou S, Phaladze N, Iacopino V, Bangsberg DR. A population-based study on alcohol and high-risk sexual behaviors in Botswana. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e392.
Talbot EA, Kenyon TA, Moeti TL, Hsin G, Dooley L, El-Halabi S, Binkin NJ. HIV risk factors among patients with tuberculosis–Botswana 1999. Int J STD AIDS. 2002;13:311–7.
Zetola NM, Modongo C, Kip EC, Gross R, Bisson GP, Collman RG. Alcohol use and abuse among patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Botswana. Int J Tubercul Lung Dis. 2012;16:1529–34.
Kurbatova EV, Taylor A, Gammino VM, Bayona J, Becerra M, Danilovitz M, Falzon D, Gelmanova I, Keshavjee S, Leimane V, Mitnick CD, Quelapio MI, Riekstina V, Viiklepp P, Zignol M, Cegielski JP. Predictors of poor outcomes among patients treated for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis at dots-plus projects. Tuberculosis. 2012;92:397–403.
Bartlett JG, Mundy LM. Community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1618–24.
Brown PD, Lerner SA. Community-acquired pneumonia. Lancet. 1998;352:1295–302.
Kozak LJ, Owings MF, Hall MJ. National hospital discharge survey, annual summary with detailed diagnosis and procedure data. Data from the National Health Survey. Vit Health Stat Ser. 2005;13:1–199.
Lim WS, Macfarlane JT, Boswell TC, Harrison TG, Rose D, Leinonen M, Saikku P. Study of community acquired pneumonia aetiology (SCAPA) in adults admitted to hospital: implications for management guidelines. Thorax. 2001;56:296–301.
Woodhead MA, Macfarlane JT, McCracken JS, Rose DH, Finch RG. Prospective study of the aetiology and outcome of pneumonia in the community. Lancet. 1987;1:671–4.
Marrie TJ, Durant H, Yates L. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: 5-year prospective study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989;11:586–99.
Dahl MS, Trollfors B, Claesson BA, Brandberg LL, Rosengren A. Invasive pneumococcal infections in southwestern Sweden: a second follow-up period of 15 years. Scand J Infect Dis. 2001;33:667–72.
Harrison LH, Dwyer DM, Billmann L, Kolczak MS, Schuchat A. Invasive pneumococcal infection in Baltimore, MD: implications for immunization policy. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:89–94.
Loeliger AE, Rijkers GT, Aerts P, Been-Tiktak A, Hoepelman AI, van Dijk H, Borleffs JC. Deficient antipneumococcal polysaccharide responses in HIV-seropositive patients. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1995;12:33–41.
Pastor P, Medley F, Murphy TV. Invasive pneumococcal disease in Dallas county, Texas: results from population-based surveillance in 1995. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:590–5.
Robinson KA, Baughman W, Rothrock G, Barrett NL, Pass M, Lexau C, Damaske B, Stefonek K, Barnes B, Patterson J, Zell ER, Schuchat A, Whitney CG, Active Bacterial Core Surveillance/Emerging Infections Program N. Epidemiology of invasive streptococcus pneumoniae infections in the United States, 1995-1998: opportunities for prevention in the conjugate vaccine era. JAMA. 2001;285:1729–35.
Madeddu G, Porqueddu EM, Cambosu F, Saba F, Fois AG, Pirina P, Mura MS. Bacterial community acquired pneumonia in HIV-infected inpatients in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Infection. 2008;36:231–6.
Kyaw MH, Rose Jr CE, Fry AM, Singleton JA, Moore Z, Zell ER, Whitney CG, Active Bacterial Core Surveillance Program of the Emerging Infections Program N. The influence of chronic illnesses on the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease in adults. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:377–86.
Murdoch DM, Napravnik S, Eron Jr JJ, Van Rie A. Smoking and predictors of pneumonia among HIV-infected patients receiving care in the HAART era. Open Respir Med J. 2008;2:22–8.
Crothers K, Huang L, Goulet JL, Goetz MB, Brown ST, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Oursler KK, Rimland D, Gibert CL, Butt AA, Justice AC. HIV infection and risk for incident pulmonary diseases in the combination antiretroviral therapy era. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183:388–95.
Feldman C, Klugman KP, Yu VL, Ortqvist A, Choiu CC, Chedid MB, Rello J, Wagener M, International Pneumococcal Study G. Bacteraemic pneumococcal pneumonia: impact of HIV on clinical presentation and outcome. J Infect. 2007;55:125–35.
Manno D, Puoti M, Signorini L, Lapadula G, Cadeo B, Soavi L, Paraninfo G, Allegri R, Cristini G, Viale P, Carosi G. Risk factors and clinical characteristics associated with hospitalization for community-acquired bacterial pneumonia in HIV-positive patients according to the presence of liver cirrhosis. Infection. 2009;37:334–9.
Moss M, Bucher B, Moore FA, Moore EE, Parsons PE. The role of chronic alcohol abuse in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults. JAMA. 1996;275:50–4.
Holguin F, Moss I, Brown LA, Guidot DM. Chronic ethanol ingestion impairs alveolar type ii cell glutathione homeostasis and function and predisposes to endotoxin-mediated acute edematous lung injury in rats. J Clin Invest. 1998;101:761–8.
Velasquez A, Bechara RI, Lewis JF, Malloy J, McCaig L, Brown LA, Guidot DM. Glutathione replacement preserves the functional surfactant phospholipid pool size and decreases sepsis-mediated lung dysfunction in ethanol-fed rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2002;26:1245–51.
Hogg RS, Heath KV, Yip B, Craib KJ, O’Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Montaner JS. Improved survival among HIV-infected individuals following initiation of antiretroviral therapy. JAMA. 1998;279:450–4.
Hogg RS, Yip B, Kully C, Craib KJ, O’Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Montaner JS. Improved survival among HIV-infected patients after initiation of triple-drug antiretroviral regimens. CMAJ. 1999;160:659–65.
Palella Jr FJ, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV outpatient study investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853–60.
Casalino E, Wolff M, Ravaud P, Choquet C, Bruneel F, Regnier B. Impact of HAART advent on admission patterns and survival in HIV-infected patients admitted to an intensive care unit. AIDS. 2004;18:1429–33.
Morris A, Creasman J, Turner J, Luce JM, Wachter RM, Huang L. Intensive care of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:262–7.
Narasimhan M, Posner AJ, DePalo VA, Mayo PH, Rosen MJ. Intensive care in patients with HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Chest. 2004;125:1800–4.
Nickas G, Wachter RM. Outcomes of intensive care for patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:541–7.
Nuesch R, Geigy N, Schaedler E, Battegay M. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on hospitalization characteristics of HIV-infected patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;21:684–7.
Palepu A, Khan NA, Norena M, Wong H, Chittock DR, Dodek PM. The role of HIV infection and drug and alcohol dependence in hospital mortality among critically ill patients. J Crit Care. 2008;23:275–80.
Suchyta MR, Clemmer TP, Elliott CG, Orme Jr JF, Weaver LK. The adult respiratory distress syndrome. A report of survival and modifying factors. Chest. 1992;101:1074–9.
Torres A, El-Ebiary M, Marrades R, Miro JM, Gatell JM, Sanchez-Nieto JM, Xaubet A, Agusti C, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Aetiology and prognostic factors of patients with aids presenting life-threatening acute respiratory failure. Eur Respir J. 1995;8:1922–8.
Isasti G, Perez I, Moreno T, Cabrera F, Palacios R, Santos J. Echocardiographic abnormalities and associated factors in a cohort of asymptomatic HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 2013;29:20–4.
Kowalska JD, Smith C, Lundgren JD. System to classify cause of deaths in HIV-positive persons: time to harmonize. AIDS. 2012;26:1835–6.
Schwarcz SK, Hsu LC, Vittinghoff E, Katz MH. Impact of protease inhibitors and other antiretroviral treatments on acquired immunodeficiency syndrome survival in San Francisco, California, 1987-1996. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:178–85.
Marin B, Thiebaut R, Bucher HC, Rondeau V, Costagliola D, Dorrucci M, Hamouda O, Prins M, Walker S, Porter K, Sabin C, Chene G. Non-aids-defining deaths and immunodeficiency in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2009;23:1743–53.
Palella Jr FJ, Baker RK, Buchacz K, Chmiel JS, Tedaldi EM, Novak RM, Durham MD, Brooks JT, Investigators H. Increased mortality among publicly insured participants in the HIV outpatient study despite HAART treatment. AIDS. 2011;25:1865–76.
Crothers K, Griffith TA, McGinnis KA, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Leaf DA, Weissman S, Gibert CL, Butt AA, Justice AC. The impact of cigarette smoking on mortality, quality of life, and comorbid illness among HIV-positive veterans. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20:1142–5.
DeLorenze GN, Weisner C, Tsai AL, Satre DD, Quesenberry Jr CP. Excess mortality among HIV-infected patients diagnosed with substance use dependence or abuse receiving care in a fully integrated medical care program. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2011;35:203–10.
Hessamfar-Bonarek M, Morlat P, Salmon D, Cacoub P, May T, Bonnet F, Rosenthal E, Costagliola D, Lewden C, Chene G, Mortalite, Study G. Causes of death in HIV-infected women: persistent role of aids. The ‘Mortalite 2000 & 2005’ surveys (ANRS EN19). Int J Epidemiol. 2010;39:135–46.
Justice AC, McGinnis KA, Skanderson M, Chang CC, Gibert CL, Goetz MB, Rimland D, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Oursler KK, Brown ST, Braithwaite RS, May M, Covinsky KE, Roberts MS, Fultz SL, Bryant KJ, Team VP. Towards a combined prognostic index for survival in HIV infection: the role of ‘non-HIV’ biomarkers. HIV Med. 2010;11:143–51.
Aragon TJ, Lichtensztajn DY, Katcher BS, Reiter R, Katz MH. Calculating expected years of life lost for assessing local ethnic disparities in causes of premature death. BMC Pub Health. 2008;8:116.
Jones DP. Redefining oxidative stress. Antiox Redox Signal. 2006;8:1865–79.
Jones DP. Radical-free biology of oxidative stress. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2008;295: C849–68.
Jacob BA, Porter KM, Elms SC, Cheng PY, Jones DP, Sutliff RL. HIV-1-induced pulmonary oxidative and nitrosative stress: exacerbated response to endotoxin administration in HIV-1 transgenic mouse model. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2006;291:L811–9.
Lassiter C, Fan X, Joshi PC, Jacob BA, Sutliff RL, Jones DP, Koval M, Guidot DM. HIV-1 transgene expression in rats causes oxidant stress and alveolar epithelial barrier dysfunction. AIDS Res Ther. 2009;6:1.
Louboutin JP, Agrawal L, Reyes BA, Van Bockstaele EJ, Strayer DS. HIV-1 gp120-induced injury to the blood-brain barrier: role of metalloproteinases 2 and 9 and relationship to oxidative stress. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2010;69:801–16.
Bilbis LS, Idowu DB, Saidu Y, Lawal M, Njoku CH. Serum levels of antioxidant vitamins and mineral elements of human immunodeficiency virus positive subjects in Sokoto, Nigeria. Annal Afr Med. 2010;9:235–9.
Coaccioli S, Crapa G, Fantera M, Del Giorno R, Lavagna A, Standoli ML, Frongillo R, Biondi R, Puxeddu A. Oxidant/antioxidant status in patients with chronic HIV infection. La Clinica terapeutica. 2010;161:55–8.
Naisbitt DJ, Vilar FJ, Stalford AC, Wilkins EG, Pirmohamed M, Park BK. Plasma cysteine deficiency and decreased reduction of nitrososulfamethoxazole with HIV infection. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 2000;16:1929–38.
Aukrust P, Muller F. Glutathione redox disturbances in human immunodeficiency virus infection: immunologic and therapeutic consequences. Nutrition. 1999;15:165–7.
Aukrust P, Svardal AM, Muller F, Lunden B, Berge RK, Ueland PM, Froland SS. Increased levels of oxidized glutathione in cd4+ lymphocytes associated with disturbed intracellular redox balance in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Blood. 1995;86:258–67.
Roederer M, Staal FJ, Osada H, Herzenberg LA, Herzenberg LA. Cd4 and cd8 t cells with high intracellular glutathione levels are selectively lost as the HIV infection progresses. Int Immunol. 1991;3:933–7.
Herzenberg LA, De Rosa SC, Dubs JG, Roederer M, Anderson MT, Ela SW, Deresinski SC, Herzenberg LA. Glutathione deficiency is associated with impaired survival in HIV disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94:1967–72.
Dicker E, Cederbaum AI. Hydroxyl radical generation by microsomes after chronic ethanol consumption. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1987;11:309–14.
Shaw S. Lipid peroxidation, iron mobilization and radical generation induced by alcohol. Free Radic Biol Med. 1989;7:541–7.
Suematsu T, Matsumura T, Sato N, Miyamoto T, Ooka T, Kamada T, Abe H. Lipid peroxidation in alcoholic liver disease in humans. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1981;5:427–30.
Girre C, Hispard E, Therond P, Guedj S, Bourdon R, Dally S. Effect of abstinence from alcohol on the depression of glutathione peroxidase activity and selenium and vitamin e levels in chronic alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1990;14:909–12.
Bautista AP. Free radicals, chemokines, and cell injury in HIV-1 and SIV infections and alcoholic hepatitis. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001;31:1527–32.
Wang Y, Watson RR. Is alcohol consumption a cofactor in the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome? Alcohol. 1995;12:105–9.
Gazzinelli RT, Makino M, Chattopadhyay SK, Snapper CM, Sher A, Hugin AW, Morse 3rd HC. Cd4+ subset regulation in viral infection. Preferential activation of th2 cells during progression of retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency in mice. J Immunol. 1992;148:182–8.
Wang Y, Huang DS, Giger PT, Watson RR. Ethanol-induced modulation of cytokine production by splenocytes during murine retrovirus infection causing murine aids. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1993;17:1035–9.
Wang Y, Watson RR. Chronic ethanol consumption before retrovirus infection is a cofactor in the development of immune dysfunction during murine aids. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1994;18:976–81.
Chen LH, Huang CY, Osio Y, Fitzpatrick EA, Cohen DA. Effects of chronic alcohol feeding and murine aids virus infection on liver antioxidant defense systems in mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1993;17:1022–8.
Guidot DM, Hart CM. Alcohol abuse and acute lung injury: epidemiology and pathophysiology of a recently recognized association. J Invest Med. 2005;53:235–45.
Joshi PC, Guidot DM. The alcoholic lung: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and potential therapies. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2007;292:L813–23.
Moss M, Parsons PE, Steinberg KP, Hudson LD, Guidot DM, Burnham EL, Eaton S, Cotsonis GA. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:869–77.
Cota-Gomez A, Flores AC, Ling XF, Varella-Garcia M, Flores SC. HIV-1 tat increases oxidant burden in the lungs of transgenic mice. Free Radic Biol Med. 2011;51:1697–707.
Pacht ER, Diaz P, Clanton T, Hart J, Gadek JE. Alveolar fluid glutathione is not reduced in asymptomatic HIV-seropositive subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:374–7.
Pacht ER, Diaz P, Clanton T, Hart J, Gadek JE. Alveolar fluid glutathione decreases in asymptomatic HIV-seropositive subjects over time. Chest. 1997;112:785–8.
Diaz PT, Wewers MD, King M, Wade J, Hart J, Clanton TL. Regional differences in emphysema scores and bal glutathione levels in HIV-infected individuals. Chest. 2004;126:1439–42.
Holroyd KJ, Buhl R, Borok Z, Roum JH, Bokser AD, Grimes GJ, Czerski D, Cantin AM, Crystal RG. Correction of glutathione deficiency in the lower respiratory tract of HIV seropositive individuals by glutathione aerosol treatment. Thorax. 1993;48:985–9.
Fan X, Joshi PC, Koval M, Guidot DM. Chronic alcohol ingestion exacerbates lung epithelial barrier dysfunction in HIV-1 transgenic rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2011;35:1866–75.
Joshi PC, Applewhite L, Mitchell PO, Fernainy K, Roman J, Eaton DC, Guidot DM. Gm-CSF receptor expression and signaling is decreased in lungs of ethanol-fed rats. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2006;291:L1150–8.
Joshi PC, Applewhite L, Ritzenthaler JD, Roman J, Fernandez AL, Eaton DC, Brown LA, Guidot DM. Chronic ethanol ingestion in rats decreases granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor expression and downstream signaling in the alveolar macrophage. J Immunol. 2005;175:6837–45.
Pelaez A, Bechara RI, Joshi PC, Brown LA, Guidot DM. Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor treatment improves alveolar epithelial barrier function in alcoholic rat lung. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2004;286:L106–11.
Jakab GJ. Immune impairment of alveolar macrophage phagocytosis during influenza virus pneumonia. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1982;126:778–82.
Pugliese A, Vidotto V, Beltramo T, Torre D. Phagocytic activity in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Clin Diagnos Lab Immunol. 2005;12:889–95.
Fong Y, Lowry SF. Tumor necrosis factor in the pathophysiology of infection and sepsis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1990;55:157–70.
Adams LB, Mason CM, Kolls JK, Scollard D, Krahenbuhl JL, Nelson S. Exacerbation of acute and chronic murine tuberculosis by administration of a tumor necrosis factor receptor-expressing adenovirus. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:400–5.
van der Poll T, Keogh CV, Buurman WA, Lowry SF. Passive immunization against tumor necrosis factor-alpha impairs host defense during pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:603–8.
Stoltz DA, Nelson S, Kolls JK, Zhang P, Bohm Jr RP, Murphey-Corb M, Bagby GJ. In vitro ethanol suppresses alveolar macrophage TNF-alpha during simian immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:135–40.
Cox RA, Anders GT, Cappelli PJ, Johnson JE, Blanton HM, Seaworth BJ, Treasure RL. Production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 by alveolar macrophages from HIV-1-infected persons. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 1990;6:431–41.
Nelson S, Bagby GJ, Bainton BG, Summer WR. The effects of acute and chronic alcoholism on tumor necrosis factor and the inflammatory response. J Infect Dis. 1989;160:422–9.
Nelson S, Happel KI, Zhang P, Myers L, Dufour JP, Bagby GJ. Effect of bacterial pneumonia on lung simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication in alcohol consuming SIV-infected rhesus macaques. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2013;37:969–77.
Tudor R, Zalewski PD, Ratnaike RN. Zinc in health and chronic disease. J Nutr Health Aging. 2005;9:45–51.
McClain CJ, Su LC. Zinc deficiency in the alcoholic: a review. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1983;7:5–10.
McClain CJ, Van Thiel DH, Parker S, Badzin LK, Gilbert H. Alterations in zinc, vitamin a, and retinol-binding protein in chronic alcoholics: a possible mechanism for night blindness and hypogonadism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1979;3:135–41.
Joshi PC, Mehta A, Jabber WS, Fan X, Guidot DM. Zinc deficiency mediates alcohol-induced alveolar epithelial and macrophage dysfunction in rats. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2009;41:207–16.
Mehta AJ, Joshi PC, Fan X, Brown LA, Ritzenthaler JD, Roman J, Guidot DM. Zinc supplementation restores pu.1 and nrf2 nuclear binding in alveolar macrophages and improves redox balance and bacterial clearance in the lungs of alcohol-fed rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2011;35:1519–28.
Joshi PC, Guidot DM. HIV-1 transgene expression in rats induces differential expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha and zinc transporters in the liver and the lung. AIDS Res Ther. 2011;8:36.
Joshi PC, Raynor R, Fan X, Guidot DM. HIV-1-transgene expression in rats decreases alveolar macrophage zinc levels and phagocytosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2008; 39:218–26.
Drummond MB, Kirk GD, Astemborski J, Marshall MM, Mehta SH, McDyer JF, Brown RH, Wise RA, Merlo CA. Association between obstructive lung disease and markers of HIV infection in a high-risk cohort. Thorax. 2012;67:309–14.
Diaz PT, King MA, Pacht ER, Wewers MD, Gadek JE, Nagaraja HN, Drake J, Clanton TL. Increased susceptibility to pulmonary emphysema among HIV-seropositive smokers. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:369–72.
Guillemi SA, Staples CA, Hogg JC, Le AN, Lawson LM, Schechter MT, Montaner JS. Unexpected lung lesions in high resolution computed tomography (HRTC) among patients with advanced HIV disease. Eur Respir J. 1996;9:33–6.
Diaz PT, Wewers MD, Pacht E, Drake J, Nagaraja HN, Clanton TL. Respiratory symptoms among HIV-seropositive individuals. Chest. 2003;123:1977–82.
O’Donnell CR, Bader MB, Zibrak JD, Jensen WA, Rose RM. Abnormal airway function in individuals with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chest. 1988;94:945–8.
Poirier CD, Inhaber N, Lalonde RG, Ernst P. Prevalence of bronchial hyperresponsiveness among HIV-infected men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:542–5.
McGuinness G, Naidich DP, Garay S, Leitman BS, McCauley DI. Aids associated bronchiectasis: Ct features. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1993;17:260–6.
Gelman M, King MA, Neal DE, Pacht ER, Clanton TL, Diaz PT. Focal air trapping in patients with HIV infection: Ct evaluation and correlation with pulmonary function test results. Ame J Roentgenol. 1999;172:1033–8.
King MA, Neal DE, St John R, Tsai J, Diaz PT. Bronchial dilatation in patients with HIV infection: Ct assessment and correlation with pulmonary function tests and findings at bronchoalveolar lavage. Ame J Roentgenol. 1997;168:1535–40.
Coplan NL, Shimony RY, Ioachim HL, Wilentz JR, Posner DH, Lipschitz A, Ruden RA, Bruno MS, Sherrid MV, Gaetz H, et al. Primary pulmonary hypertension associated with human immunodeficiency viral infection. Am J Med. 1990;89:96–9.
Weiss JR, Pietra GG, Scharf SM. Primary pulmonary hypertension and the human immunodeficiency virus. Report of two cases and a review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:2350–4.
Zuber JP, Calmy A, Evison JM, Hasse B, Schiffer V, Wagels T, Nuesch R, Magenta L, Ledergerber B, Jenni R, Speich R, Opravil M, Swiss HIVCSG. Pulmonary arterial hypertension related to HIV infection: improved hemodynamics and survival associated with antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:1178–85.
Morris A, Gingo MR, George MP, Lucht L, Kessinger C, Singh V, Hillenbrand M, Busch M, McMahon D, Norris KA, Champion HC, Gladwin MT, Zhang Y, Steele C, Sciurba FC. Cardiopulmonary function in individuals with HIV infection in the antiretroviral therapy era. AIDS. 2012;26:731–40.
Chaturvedi AK, Pfeiffer RM, Chang L, Goedert JJ, Biggar RJ, Engels EA. Elevated risk of lung cancer among people with aids. AIDS. 2007;21:207–13.
Kirk GD, Merlo C, O’Driscoll P, Mehta SH, Galai N, Vlahov D, Samet J, Engels EA. HIV infection is associated with an increased risk for lung cancer, independent of smoking. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:103–10.
Sigel K, Wisnivesky J, Gordon K, Dubrow R, Justice A, Brown ST, Goulet J, Butt AA, Crystal S, Rimland D, Rodriguez-Barradas M, Gibert C, Park LS, Crothers K. HIV as an independent risk factor for incident lung cancer. AIDS. 2012;26:1017–25.
Pakkala S, Chen Z, Rimland D, Owonikoko TK, Gunthel C, Brandes JR, Saba NR, Shin DM, Curran Jr WJ, Khuri FR, Ramalingam SS. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated lung cancer in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Cancer. 2012;118:164–72.
Clifford GM, Lise M, Franceschi S, Egger M, Bouchardy C, Korol D, Levi F, Ess S, Jundt G, Wandeler G, Fehr J, Schmid P, Battegay M, Bernasconi E, Cavassini M, Calmy A, Keiser O, Schoni-Affolter F, Swiss HIVCS. Lung cancer in the Swiss HIV cohort study: role of smoking, immunodeficiency and pulmonary infection. Br J Cancer. 2012;106:447–52.
Rengan R, Mitra N, Liao K, Armstrong K, Vachani A. Effect of HIV on survival in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13:1203–9.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cribbs, S.K., Rimland, D. (2014). Alcohol and HIV: Experimental and Clinical Evidence of Combined Impact on the Lung. In: Guidot, D., Mehta, A. (eds) Alcohol Use Disorders and the Lung. Respiratory Medicine, vol 14. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8833-0_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8833-0_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-8832-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-8833-0
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)