Abstract
The contamination of soils with various inorganic and organic contaminants led to the degradation of large expenses of urban and arable lands throughout the world. The presence of toxic contaminants poses a significant health risk to humans and other ecological systems. Scattered literature is harnessed to critically review the various natural and anthropogenic sources and potential hazards and to identify the best possible remediation strategies for a number of contaminants, mainly those inorganic in nature such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) commonly found in the contaminated soils. The remediation methods including chemical and phytoremediation techniques are discussed in this chapter. Chemical remediation methods such as immobilization, soil washing, and vitrification are relatively expansive and hazardous to the environment, and are not suitable for large-scale soil remediation activities. Conversely, phytoremediation has emerged as an environmentally friendly and feasible technology for restoration of contaminated soils, but very limited efforts have been directed to demonstrate this technology under field conditions. Remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils is necessary to reduce the associated risks, make the land resource available for agricultural production, enhance food security, and scale down land tenure problems arising from changes in the land-use pattern.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abou Seeda M, Zaghloul A, AbdEl-Galil A (2005) The role of cement dust in chemical remediation of sludge treated soil. ASS Univ Bull Environ Res 8:98–105
Acar YB, Gale RJ, Alshawabkeh AN, Marks RE, Puppala S, Bricka M, Parker R (1995) Electrokinetic remediation: basics and technology status. J Hazard Mater 40:117–137
Alkorta I, Hernandez-Allica J, Becerril J, Amezaga I, Albizu I, Onaindia M, Garbisu C (2004) Chelate-enhanced phytoremediation of soils polluted with heavy metals. Rev Environ Sci Biotech 3:55–70
Alpaslan B, Yukselen MA (2002) Remediation of lead contaminated soils by stabilization/solidification. Water Air Soil Pollut 133:253–263
Anderson A, Mitchell P (2003) Treatment of mercury-contaminated soil, mine waste and sludge using silica micro-encapsulation. TMS annual meeting, extraction and processing division, March 2–6, 2003, San Diego, CA, pp 265–274
Andreae MO, Merlet P (2001) Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning. Glob Biogeochem cycles 15:955–966
Artaxo P, Hansson H-C (1995) Size distribution of biogenic aerosol particles from the Amazon Basin. Atmos Environ 29:393–402
Artinano B, Salvador P, Alonso D, Querol X, Alastuey A (2003) Anthropogenic and natural influence on the PM(10) and PM(2.5) aerosol in Madrid (Spain). Analysis of high concentration episodes. Environ Pollut 125:453–465
Asante-Duah DK (1996) Managing contaminated sites: problem diagnosis and development of site restoration. Wiley, Chichester
Bakand S, Winder C, Hayes A (2007) Comparative in vitro cytotoxicity assessment of selected gaseous compounds in human alveolar epithelial cells. Toxicol Vitro 21:1341–1347
Barter M (1999) Phytoremediation-an overview. J New Engl Water Environ Assoc 33:158–164
Basketter DA, Angelini G, Ingber A, Kern PS, Menne T (2003) Nickel, chromium and cobalt in consumer products: revisiting safe levels in the new millennium. Contact Dermat 49:1–7
Bera AK, Bera A, Samadrita BR (2005) Impact  of heavy metal pollution in plants. In: Bose B, Hemantaranajan A (eds) Developments in physiology biochemistry and molecular biology of plants, vol 1. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, pp 105–124
Berti WR, Cunningham SD (2000) Phytostabilization of metals. Phytoremediation of toxic metals: using plants to clean-up the environment. Wiley, New York, pp 71–88
Bhandari A, Xia K (2005) Hazardous organic chemicals in biosolids recycled as soil amendments. In: Water pollution. Springer Berlin, pp 217–239
Bizily SP, Rugh CL, Meagher RB (2000) Phytodetoxification of hazardous organomercurials by genetically engineered plants. Nat Biotechnol 18:213–217
Blaylock MJ, Huang JW (2000) Phytoextraction of metals. Phytoremediation of toxic metals: using plants to clean-up the environment. Wiley, New York, pp 53–70
Bolan NS, Park JH, Robinson B, Naidu R, Huh KY (2011) Phytostabilization: a green approach to contaminant containment. Adv Agron 112:145–204
Boonyapookana B, Upatham ES, Kruatrachue M, Pokethitiyook P, Singhakaew S (2002) Phytoaccumulation and phytotoxicity of cadmium and chromium in duckweed Wolffia globosa. Int J Phytoremed 4:87–100
Boulding R (1996) EPA environmental assessment sourcebook. CRC Press, Chelsea
Bradshaw A (1997) Restoration of mined lands-using natural processes. Ecol Eng 8:255–269
Brooks RR, Chambers MF, Nicks LJ, Robinson BH (1998) Phytomining. Trends Plant Sci 3:359–362
Brunner I, Luster J, Gunthardt-Goerg MS, Frey B (2008) Heavy metal accumulation and phytostabilisation potential of tree fine roots in a contaminated soil. Environ Pollut 152:559–568
Chapman PM, Wang F, Janssen CR, Goulet RR, Kamunde CN (2003) Conducting ecological risk assessments of inorganic metals and metalloids: current status. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 9:641–697
Chatterjee J, Chatterjee C (2000) Phytotoxicity of cobalt, chromium and copper in cauliflower. Environ Pollut 109:69–74
Cobb GP, Sands K, Waters M, Wixson BG, Dorward-King E (2000) Accumulation of heavy metals by vegetables grown in mine wastes. Environ Toxicol Chem 19:600–607
Cunningham SD, Berti WR (2000) Phytoextraction and phytostabilization: technical, economic and regulatory considerations of the soil-lead issue. In: Terry N, Banuelos G (eds) Phytoremediation of contaminated soils and waters. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, pp 359–375
Dermatas D, Meng X (2003) Utilization of fly ash for stabilization/solidification of heavy metal contaminated soils. Eng Geol 70:377–394
Desouza M, Pilon-Smits E, Terry N (2000) The physiology and biochemistry of selenium volatilization by plants. Phytoremediation of toxic metals: using plants to clean-up the environment. Wiley, New York, pp 171–190
Di Palma L, Ferrantelli P, Merli C, Biancifiori F (2003) Recovery of EDTA and metal precipitation from soil flushing solutions. J Hazard Mater 103:153–168
Dias G, Edwards G (2003) Differentiating natural and anthropogenic sources of metals to the environment. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 9:699–721
Druss DL (2002) Guidelines for design and installation of soil-cement stabilization. Geotech Special Publ 1:527–539
Dushenkov V, Kumar PN, Motto H, Raskin I (1995) Rhizofiltration: the use of plants to remove heavy metals from aqueous streams. Environ Sci Technol 29:1239–1245
Dushenkov S, Kapulnik Y, Blaylock M, Sorochisky B, Raskin I, Ensley B (1997) Phytoremediation: a novel approach to an old problem. Stud Environ Sci 66:563–572
Ebbs S, Lasat M, Brady D, Cornish J, Gordon R, Kochian L (1997) Phytoextraction of cadmium and zinc from a contaminated soil. J Environ Qual 26:1424–1430
Elinder CG, Kjellström T, Lind B, Linnman L, Piscator M, Sundstedt K (1983) Cadmium exposure from smoking cigarettes: variations with time and country where purchased. Environ Res 32:220–227
Ensley BD (2000) Rationale for use of phytoremediation. In: Raskin I, Ensley BD (eds) Phytoremediation of toxic metals using plants to clean up the environment. Wiley, New York, pp 3–11
Flathman PE, Lanza GR (1998) Phytoremediation: current views on an emerging green technology. J soil contam 7:415–432
Galażyn-Sidorczuk M, Brzoska MM, Moniuszko-Jakoniuk J (2008) Estimation of Polish cigarettes contamination with cadmium and lead, and exposure to these metals via smoking. Environ Monit Assess 137:481–493
Garrett RG (2000) Natural sources of metals to the environment. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 6:945–963
Gerardi MH, Zimmerman MC (2004) Wastewater pathogens. Wiley.com
Ghafoor A, Murtaza G, Ahmad B, Boers TM (2008a) Evaluation of amelioration treatments and economic aspects of using saline-sodic water for rice and wheat production on salt-affected soils under arid land conditions. Irrig Drain 57:424–434
Ghafoor A, Rehman MZ, Ghafoor A, Murtaza G, Sabir M (2008b) Fractionation and availability of cadmium to wheat as affected by inorganic amendments. Int J Agr Biol 10:469–474
Ghafoor A, Murtaza G, Rehman MZ, Sabir M, Ahmad HR, Saifullah (2012) Environment pollution: types, sources & management. Allied Book Centre, Lahore
Ghosh M, Singh S (2005) A review on phytoremediation of heavy metals and utilization of it’s by products. Appl Ecol Environ Res 3:1–18
Haynes R, Murtaza G, Naidu R (2009) Inorganic and organic constituents and contaminants of biosolids: implications for land application. Adv Agron 104:165–267
Heaton AC, Rugh CL, Wang N-j, Meagher RB (1998) Phytoremediation of mercury-and methylmercury-polluted soils using genetically engineered plants. J soil contam 7:497–509
Hecht SS (2003) Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer. Nat Rev Can 3:733–744
Ikem A, Campbell M, Nyirakabibi I, Garth J (2008) Baseline concentrations of trace elements in residential soils from Southeastern Missouri. Environ Monit Assess 140:69–81
Jacobs LW, O’Connor G, Overcash M, Zabik M, Rygiewicz P (1987) Effects of trace organics in sewage sludges on soil-plant systems and assessing their risk to humans. Lewis, Chelsea
Jadia CD, Fulekar M (2009) Phytoremediation of heavy metals: recent techniques. Afr J Biotechnol 11:664–691
Jamal A, McKenzie K, Clark M (2009) The impact of health information technology on the quality of medical and health care: a systematic review. HIM J 38:26–37
Jarup L (2003) Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br Med Bull 68:167–182
Juhasz AL, Smith E, Smith J, Naidu R (2003) In situ remediation of DDT-contaminated soil using a two-phase cosolvent flushing-fungal biosorption process. Water Air Soil Pollut 147:263–274
Kamal M, Ghaly A, Mahmoud N, Cote R (2004) Phytoaccumulation of heavy metals by aquatic plants. Environ Int 29:1029–1039
Karl T, Guenther A, Yokelson RJ, Greenberg J, Potosnak M, Blake DR, Artaxo P (2007) The tropical forest and fire emissions experiment: emission, chemistry, and transport of biogenic volatile organic compounds in the lower atmosphere over Amazonia. J Geophys Res 112:D18302. doi:10.1029/2007JD008539
Kasprzak KS, Sunderman FW Jr, Salnikow K (2003) Nickel carcinogenesis. Mutat Res-Fund Mol M 533:67–97
Kertulis-Tartar G, Ma L, Tu C, Chirenje T (2006) Phytoremediation of an arsenic-contaminated site using Pteris vittata L.: a two-year study. Int J Phytoremediat 8:311–322
Khan FI, Husain T, Hejazi R (2004) An overview and analysis of site remediation technologies. J Environ Manage 71:95–122
Krogmann U, Boyles LS, Bamka WJ, Chaiprapat S, Martel CJ (1999) Biosolids and sludge management. Water Environ Res 71:692–714
Kumar PN, Dushenkov V, Motto H, Raskin I (1995) Phytoextraction: the use of plants to remove heavy metals from soils. Environ Sci Technol 29:1232–1238
Lewis B, Johnson C, Delwiche C (1966) Release of volatile selenium compounds by plants. Collection procedures and preliminary observations. J Agric Food Chem 14:638–640
Logsdon S, Keller K, Moorman T (2002) Measured and predicted solute leaching from multiple undisturbed soil columns. Soil Sci Soc Am J 66:686–695
Luo C, Shen Z, Li X (2005) Enhanced phytoextraction of Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd with EDTA and EDDS. Chemosphere 59:1–11
Ma C-J, Kasahara M, Höller R, Kamiya T (2001) Characteristics of single particles sampled in Japan during the Asian dust-storm period. Atmos Environ 35:2707–2714
Madsen EL (2011) Microorganisms and their roles in fundamental biogeochemical cycles. Curr Opin Biotechnol 22:456–464
Magaye R, Zhao J (2012) Recent progress in studies of metallic nickel & nickel-based nanoparticles’ genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 34(3):644–650
McGrath SP, Zhao F-J (2003) Phytoextraction of metals and metalloids from contaminated soils. Curr Opin Biotechnol 14:277–282
McGrath S, Zhao J, Lombi E (2002) Phytoremediation of metals, metalloids, and radionuclides. Adv Agron 75:1–56
Meza-Figueroa D, Maier RM (2009) The impact of unconfined mine tailings in residential areas from a mining town in a semi-arid environment: Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico. Chemosphere 77:140–147
Mulligan C, Yong R, Gibbs B (2001) Remediation technologies for metal-contaminated soils and groundwater: an evaluation. Eng Geol 60:193–207
Murtaza G, Ghafoor A, Qadir M, Owens G, Aziz M, Zia M (2010) Disposal and use of sewage on agricultural lands in Pakistan: a review. Pedosphere 20:23–34
Murtaza G, Haynes RJ, Naidu R, Belyaeva ON, Kim K-R, Lamb DT, Bolan NS (2011) Natural attenuation of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd in three biosolids-amended soils of contrasting pH measured using rhizon pore water samplers. Water Air Soil Pollut 221:351–363
Neumann M, Schulz R, Schäfer K, Müller W, Mannheller W, Liess M (2002) The significance of entry routes as point and non-point sources of pesticides in small streams. Water Res 36:835–842
Niazi NK, Singh B, Shah P (2011a) Arsenic speciation and phytoavailability in contaminated soils using a sequential extraction procedure and XANES spectroscopy. Environ Sci Technol 45:7135–7142
Niazi NK, Singh B, Van Zwieten L, Kachenko AG (2011b) Phytoremediation potential of Pityrogramma calomelanos var. austroamericana and Pteris vittata L. grown at a highly variable arsenic contaminated site. Int J Phytoremed 13:912–932
Niazi NK, Singh B, Van Zwieten L, Kachenko AG (2012) Phytoremediation of an arsenic-contaminated site using Pteris vittata L. and Pityrogramma calomelanos var. austroamericana: a long-term study. Environ Sci Pollut Res 19:3506–3515
Nogawa K, Kobayashi E, Okubo Y, Suwazono Y (2004) Environmental cadmium exposure, adverse effects and preventive measures in Japan. BioMetals 17:581–587
Nyer EK (2010) In situ treatment technology. CRC Press, Florida
Otterpohl R (2002) Options for alternative types of sewerage and treatment systems directed to improvement of the overall performance. Water Sci Technol 45:149–158
Panwar B, Marton L, Kadar I, Anton A, Nemeth T (2010) Phytoremediation: a novel green technology to restore soil health. Acta Agron Hung 58:443–458
Pilon-Smits E (2005) Phytoremediation. Annu Rev Plant Biol 56:15–39
Ponder SM, Darab JG, Mallouk TE (2000) Remediation of Cr (VI) and Pb (II) aqueous solutions using supported, nanoscale zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Technol 34:2564–2569
Raag (2000) Evaluation of Risk Based Corrective Action Model, Remediation Alternative Assessment Group, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s, NF, Canada
Raskin I, Ensley BD (2000) Phytoremediation of toxic metals. Wiley, New York
Rogers HR (1996) Sources, behaviour and fate of organic contaminants during sewage treatment and in sewage sludges. Sci Total Environ 185:3–26
Rugh CL (2001) Mercury detoxification with transgenic plants and other biotechnological breakthroughs for phytoremediation in vitro cell development. Biol-Plant 37:321–325
Sabir M, Ghafoor A, Saifullah, Rehman M, Murtaza G (2008) Effect of organic amendments and incubation time on extractability of Ni and other metals from contaminated soils. Pak J Agric Sci 45:18–24
Saifullah, Zia MH, Meers E, Ghafoor A, Murtaza G, Sabir M, Zia-ur-Rehman M, Tack F (2010) Chemically enhanced phytoextraction of Pb by wheat in texturally different soils. Chemosphere 79:652–658
Schnoor JL (2000) Phytostabilization of metals using hybrid poplar trees. Phytoremediation of toxic metals: using plants to clean-up the environment. Wiley, New York, pp 133–150
Sherwood LJ, Qualls RG (2001) Stability of phosphorus within a wetland soil following ferric chloride treatment to control eutrophication. Environ Sci Technol 35:4126–4131
Silva WS, Lapis AA, Suarez PA, Neto BA (2011) Enzyme-mediated epoxidation of methyl oleate supported by imidazolium-based ionic liquids. J Mol Catal B-Enzym 68:98–103
Singh J, Upadhyay SK, Pathak RK, Gupta V (2011) Accumulation of heavy metals in soil and paddy crop (Oryza sativa), irrigated with water of Ramgarh Lake, Gorakhpur, UP, India. Toxicol Environ Chem 93:462–473
Sinha RK, Valani D, Sinha S, Singh S, Herat S (2010) bioremediation of contaminated sites: a low-cost nature’s biotechnology for environmental clean up by versatile microbes, plants & earthworms. In: Faerber T, Herzog J (eds) Solid waste management and environmental remediation. Nova Science, USA, pp 1–72
Smith S (2000) Are controls on organic contaminants necessary to protect the environment when sewage sludge is used in agriculture? Prog Environ Sci 2:129–146
Son A-J, Shin K-H, Lee J-U, Kim K-W (2003) Chemical and ecotoxicity assessment of PAH-contaminated soils remediated by enhanced soil flushing. Environ Eng Sci 20:197–206
Suszcynsky EM, Shann JR (1995) Phytotoxicity and accumulation of mercury in tobacco subjected to different exposure routes. Environ Toxicol Chem 14:61–67
Suthersan SS, Payne FC (2004) In situ remediation engineering. CRC Press, Florida
Tagmount A, Berken A, Terry N (2002) An essential role of S-Adenosyl-l-Methionine: l-MethionineS-Methyltransferase in selenium volatilization by plants. Methylation of selenomethionine to Selenium-Methyl-l-Selenium-Methionine, the precursor of volatile selenium. Plant Physiol 130:847–856
Tavares-Dias M (2006) A morphological and cytochemical study of erythrocytes, thrombocytes and leukocytes in four freshwater teleosts. J Fish Biol 68:1822–1833
Terry N, Carlson C, Raab T, Zayed AM (1992) Rates of selenium volatilization among crop species. J Environ Qual 21:341–344
Thyssen JP, Menni T (2009) Metal Allergyî: a review on exposures, penetration, genetics, prevalence, and clinical implications. Chem Res Toxicol 23:309–318
Trapp S, Larsen M, Pirandello A, Danquah-Boakye J (2003) Feasibility of cyanide elimination using plants. Eur J Mineral Proc Environ Prot 3:128–137
Vallack HW, Bakker DJ, Brandt I, Brostrom-Lunden E, Brouwer A, Bull KR, Gough C, Guardans R, Holoubek I, Jansson B (1998) Controlling persistent organic pollutants-what next? Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 6:143–175
Van der Oost R, Beyer J, Vermeulen NP (2003) Fish bioaccumulation and biomarkers in environmental risk assessment: a review. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 13:57–149
Vara Prasad MN, de Oliveira Freitas HM (2003) Metal hyperaccumulation in plants: biodiversity prospecting for phytoremediation technology. Electron J Biotechnol 6:285–321
Verma P, George K, Singh H, Singh S, Juwarkar A, Singh R (2006) Modeling rhizofiltration: heavy-metal uptake by plant roots. Environ Model Assess 11:387–394
Vouillamoz J, Milke M (2001) Effect of compost in phytoremediation of diesel-contaminated soils. Water Sci Technol 43:291–295
Watanabe ME (1997) Phytoremediation on the brink of commericialization. Environ Sci Technol 31:182A–186A
Weissermel K (2008) Industrial organic chemistry. Wiley.com
Wilk C (2003) Solidification/stabilization treatment: principles and practice. Air and Waste Management Association’s Magazine for Environmental Managers July, 31–37
Yang F, Yang J, Zhang X, Chen L, Jiang Y, Yan Y, Tang X, Wang J, Xiong Z, Dong J (2005) Genome dynamics and diversity of Shigella species, the etiologic agents of bacillary dysentery. Nucleic Acids Res 33:6445–6458
Zhao JS, Ward OP, Lubicki P, Cross JD, Huck P (2001) Process for degradation of nitrobenzene: combining electron beam irradiation with biotransformation. Biotechnol Bioeng 73:306–312
Zhu Y, Zayed A, Qian J, De Souza M, Terry N (1999) Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland plants: II. Water hyacinth. J Environ Qual 28:339–344
Zychlinsky A, Sansonetti P (1997) Perspectives series: host/pathogen interactions. Apoptosis in bacterial pathogenesis. J Clin Invest 100:493–495
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Murtaza, G., Murtaza, B., Niazi, N., Sabir, M. (2014). Soil Contaminants: Sources, Effects, and Approaches for Remediation. In: Ahmad, P., Wani, M., Azooz, M., Phan Tran, LS. (eds) Improvement of Crops in the Era of Climatic Changes. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8824-8_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8824-8_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-8823-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-8824-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)