Afterword

Abstract

In the most general and accepted terms, altruism is any behavior or attitude that can be contrasted with egoism. For the altruist, others are “ends-in-themselves” rather than mere means to the fulfillment of the interests of the self, which is what defines the egoist. Altruism means, literally, “other-regarding.” As such, it would seem to be a plausibly universal attitude and behavior, at least with respect to the nearest and dearest, such as family members and friends. The extension of altruism to wider circles is commonplace within the narrow context of the agent’s communities; extension to a shared humanity may sometimes be limited by intense group loyalties but is also clearly achievable through helping activities that transcend ethnic, cultural, religious, racial, class, and species barriers. At least in principle, the universality of altruism is best demonstrated by the universality of the Golden Rule in its form of “doing unto others,” which appears widely across cultures and times, and is thus an aspect of what Aldous Huxley termed the perennial philosophy. In broad terms, other-regarding behaviors are without exception endorsed in all major world religions and in the world cultures that have grown up around them.