Skip to main content

Reducing Disparities in Sexual Health: Lessons Learned from the Campaign to Eliminate Infectious Syphilis from the United States

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

All Americans should have equal opportunities to live healthy lives regardless of their income, education, or racial/ethnic background. However, difficult living conditions have made health and wellness elusive for many Americans, creating circumstances that increase poor health outcomes, including disparate rates of sexually transmitted diseases. In particular the persistent high rate of primary and secondary (P&S) syphilis in some of American’s most vulnerable populations has been characterized as a sentinel event, signaling a failure in public health capacity to ensure the health of American communities [1, 2]. The National Campaign to Eliminate Syphilis (SEP), launched in October 1999, was designed to improve public health capacity, and thereby improve infant health, reduce HIV transmission, reduce health care costs, and eliminate a long-standing glaring health disparity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Wasserheit, JN. A barometer of community health. Sex Transm Diseases, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The national plan to eliminate syphilis from the United States. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, 1999: 1–84.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Nakashima AK, Rolfs R, Flock M, Kilmarx P, Greenspan J. Epidemiology of Syphilis in the United States, 1941–1993. Sex Transm Dis. 1996;23(1):16–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2009. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010. www.cdc.gov/std/stats.

  5. Baumgartner L. Syphilis eradication: a plan for action now. In: Venereal Diseases Branch, (ed.), Proceedings of the World Forum on Syphilis and Other Treponematoses. Washington, D.C.: Public Health Service; 1964:26–32.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Cates Jr W, Rothenberg RB, Blount JH. Syphilis control. The historic context and epidemiologic basis for interrupting sexual transmission of Treponema pallidum. Sex Transm Dis. 1996;23(1):68–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Principles of Disease Elimination and Eradication. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, December 31, 1999/48(SU01); 23–7.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Brown, WJ. A plan for the eradication of syphilis. Read before the section on preventive medicine. Southern Medical Association, Fifty-Sixth Annual Meeting. Miami Beach, FL. November 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Koplan J. Syphilis elimination: history in the making-opening remarks. Sex Transm Dis. 2000;27(2):63–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Further information available from the Office of Management and Budget. Executive Office of the President website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/mgmt-gpra/gplaw2m.html. Last accessed on October 2005.

  11. MMWR. June 26, 1998/47(24);493–497. Primary and Secondary Syphilis—United States, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2009 Supplement, Syphilis Surveillance Report. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, December 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Institute of Medicine (IOM). Eng, T.R., and Butler, W.T., (eds.), The Hidden Epidemic: Confronting Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997

    Google Scholar 

  14. Aral SO, Holmes KK. Social and behavioral determinants of epidemiology of STDs. Industrialized and developing countries. In: Holmes KK et al., editors. Sexually transmitted diseases. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 1999. p. 39–76.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Dean, HD, Fenton, KA. Addressing Social Determinants of Health in the Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Sexually Transmitted Infections, and Tuberculosis. Public Health Reports/2010 Supplement 4/Volume 125.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Barrow RY, Berkel C, Brooks LC, Groseclose SL, Johnson DB, Valentine JA. Traditional sexually transmitted disease prevention and control strategies: tailoring for African American communities. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35(12 Suppl):S30–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. O’Leary A, editor. Beyond condoms: alternative approaches to HIV prevention. New York: Kluwer; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Syphilis Elimination Rapid Response Team Procedures Guide. Atlanta:CDC; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lessons Learned and Emerging Best Practices from the National Syphilis Elimination Program Assessment. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergency preparedness and response. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/publications/feb08phprep/appendix/appendix5.asp

  21. Wasserheit JN, Aral SO. The dynamic topology of sexually transmitted disease epidemics: Implications for prevention strategies. J Infect Dis. 1996;174 Suppl 2:S201–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Finelli L, Levine W, Valentine J, St. Louis M. Syphilis outbreak assessment. Sex Transm Dis. 2001;28(3):131–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Division of STD Prevention Rapid Response Team and Technical Assistance Assessment: Lessons Learned, Report to the Director. Atlanta: CDC; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lessons Learned & Emerging Best Practices from the National Syphilis Elimination Program Assessment. Atlanta: CDC; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Parran T. The eradication of syphilis as a practical public health objective. JAMA. 1931; 97(2)

    Google Scholar 

  26. Brown WJ. A plan for the eradication of syphilis. South Med J. 1962;56:840–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Centers for Disease Control. Principals of Community Engagement. Public Health Practice Program Office, Atlanta, GA: 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  28. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, What is Cultural Competency?, Office of Minority Health (HHS), Available at http://www.omhrc.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2%26lvlID=11.

  29. Wallerstein N. Power between evaluator and community: research relationships with New Mexico’s health communities. Social Science & Medicine. 1999; 49.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Morgan LM. Community participation in health: perpetual allure, persistent challenge. Health Policy Plan. 2001;16(3):221–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Robertson A, Minkler M. New health promotion movement: a critical examination. Health Educ Q. 1994;21(3):295–312.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Boris ET, Steuerle CE. Nonprofits and government: collaboration and conflict. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute Press; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lessons Learned & Emerging Best Practices from the National Syphilis Elimination Program Assessment. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, September 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Syphilis Elimination Technical Appendix. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services. May 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Syphilis Elimination Listening Tour April-June 2005, Summary of Findings. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, September 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Cheney M, John R, Brennan L. A syphilis elimination media campaign in Oklahoma County. Cases Public Health Commun Market. 2008;2:11–38. www.casesjournal.org/volume2.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Israel BA, Checkoway B, Schulz A, Zimmerman M. Health education and community empowerment: conceptualizing and measuring perceptions of individual, organizational, and community control. Health Educ Q. 1994;21(3):149170.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Office of Minority Health. US Department of Health and Human Services. What is Cultural Competency? URL: www.minorityhealth.hhs.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2%26lvlID=11.

  39. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Syphilis Elimination Toolkit webpage. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/std/SEE/description.htm

  40. St Lawrence JS, Montaño DE, Kasprzyk D, Phillips WR, Armstrong K, Leichliter JS. STD screening, testing, case reporting, and clinical and partner notification practices: a national survey of US physicians. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(11):1784–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. A manual of tests for syphilis. Larsen SA, Pope V, Johnson RE & Kennedy EJ. (eds.), 9th Ed. 1998. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Lambert NL, Fisher M, Imrie J, Watson R, Mercer CH, Parry JV, Phillips A, Iversen A, Perry N, Dean GL. Community based syphilis screening: feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness in case finding. Sex Transm Infect. 2005;81(3):213–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Together we can. The National Plan to Eliminate Syphilis from the United States. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, May 2006: 1–56.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lessons Learned & Emerging Best Practices from the National Syphilis Elimination Program Assessment. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services. Sept 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Dyer, JA. Multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary educational models and nursing education. Nursing Education Perspectives/July-August, 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2006 Supplement, Syphilis Surveillance Report. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, September 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Aral SO Determinants of STD epidemics: implications for phase appropriate intervention strategies. Sex Transmit Infect 2002;78(Suppl I):i3–i13

    Google Scholar 

  48. Chesson CW, Dee TS, Aral SO. AIDS mortality may have contributed to the decline in Syphilis rates in the United States in the 1990s. Sex Transm Dis. 2003;30(5):410–24.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Fenton KA, Imrie J. Increasing rates of sexually transmitted diseases in homosexual men in Western Europe and the United States: why? Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2005;19(2):311–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. McFarlane M, Kachur R, Klausner JD, Roland E, Cohen M. Internet-based health promotion and disease control in the 8 cities: successes, barriers, and future plans. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32(10 Suppl):S60–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. MMWR. Primary and Secondary Syphilis —United States, 2003—2004. March 17, 2006/55(10);269–273.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Congenital syphilis—United States, 2003–2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:413–17.

    Google Scholar 

  53. MMWR. 1999;48:873–878

    Google Scholar 

  54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 1999. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2009. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ. Social context, sexual networks, and racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted infections. J Infect Dis. 2005;191(Supplement 1):S115–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Auerbach J. Transforming social structures and environments to help in HIV prevention. Health Aff (Millwood). 2009;28:1655–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US). Program collaboration and service integration: enhancing the prevention and control of HIV/AIDS, viral hepatitis, sexually transmitted diseases and tuberculosis in the United States. Atlanta: CDC; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Centers for Disease Control. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/od/pgo/funding/grants/glossary.shtm

  60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Comprehensive STD Prevention Systems 2009, Program Announcement. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Etheridge EW. Sentinel for health: a history of the centers for disease control. Berkley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press; 1992. p. 121.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Report to Congress. in The national plan to eliminate syphilis from the United States. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, 1999:1–84.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Sharpe, TT. McDavid-Harrison, K. Dean, HD. Summary of CDC Consultation to Address Social Determinants of Health for Prevention of Disparities in HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, and Tuberculosis. Public Health Reports/2010 Supplement 4/Volume 125.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Douglas JM, Peterman TA, Fenton KA. Syphilis among men who have sex with men: challenges to Syphilis Elimination in the United States. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32:S80–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Mayer KH, Mimiaga MJ, Safren SA. Out of the closet and into public health focus: HIV and STDs in Men Who have Sex with Men in middle income and resource-limited countries. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37(4):205–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. HIV/STD Risks in Young Men Who Have Sex With Men Who Do Not Disclose Their Sexual Orientation—Six U.S. Cities, 1994–2000. MMWR in Arch Dermatol. 2003;139:820–21.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Golden MR, Marra CM, Holmes KK. Update on syphilis: resurgence of an old problem. JAMA. 2003;290(11):1510–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Rietmeijer CA, Van Bemmelen R, Judson FN, Douglas JM Jr. Sex Transm Dis. 2002 Feb;29(2):65–72. Incidence and repeat infection rates of Chlamydia ­trachomatis among male and female patients in an STD clinic: implications for screening and rescreening.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Dunne EF, et al. Rate and Predictors of Repeat Chlamydia trachomatis Infection Among Men. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35(12):000–0.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Bachmann LH, et al. Risk and Prevalence of Treatable Sexually Transmitted Diseases at a Birmingham Substance Abuse Treatment Facility. AJPH. 2000;90(10):1615–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Stolte IG, de Wit JB, Kolader M, Fennema H, Coutinho RA, Dukers NH. Association between ‘safer sex fatigue’ and rectal gonorrhea is mediated by unsafe sex with casual partners among HIV-positive homosexual men. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33(4):201–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Centers for Disease Control. Developing Strategies for Syphilis Elimination in the United States: Consultants’ Meeting, May 12–13, 1998. In the National Plan to Eliminate Syphilis from the United States. Atlanta, GA: CDC October 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Moran JS, Aral SO, Jenkins WC, et al. The impact of sexually transmitted diseases on minority populations. Public Health Rep. 1989;104:560–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Thomas JC, Clark M, Robinson J, et al. The social ecology of syphilis. Soc Sci Med. 1999;48:1081–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. United States Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. June 3, 2011. http://www.bls.gov/cps/.

  76. Mansergh G, et al. CDC Consultation on Methamphetamine Use and Sexual Risk Behavior for HIV/STD Infection: Summary and Suggestions. Public Health Rep. 2006;121(2):127–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Benotsch EG, Mikytuck JJ, Ragsdale K, Pinkerton SD. Sexual Risk and HIV Acquisition among Men Who Have Sex with Men Travelers to Key West, Florida: A Mathematical Modeling Analysis. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2006;20(8):549–56. doi:10.1089/apc.2006.20.549.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Benotsch EG, Nettles CD, Wong F, Redmann J, Boschini J, Pinkerton SD. Kathleen Ragsdale and John J. Mikytuck sexual risk behavior. Men attending Mardi Gras celebrations in New Orleans, Louisiana. J Community Health. 2007;32(5):343–56. doi:10.1007/s10900-007-9054-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Berg RC. Barebacking among MSM Internet Users (published online). AIDS Behav. 2007;12(5):822–33. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9281-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Hogben M, Leichliter J. Social determinants and sexually transmitted disease disparities. Sex Trans Dis. 2008;35(12):S13–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Thomas JC, Torrone E. Incarceration as forced migration: effects on selected community health outcomes. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:1762–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Satcher, D. Include a Social Determinants of Health Approach to Reduce Health Inequities, Public Health Reports/2010 Supplement 4/Volume 125.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Phipps W, Kent CK, Kohn R, Klausner JD. Risk factors for repeat syphilis in men who have sex with men. San Francisco Sex Transm Dis. 2009;36(6):331–5.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Centers for Disease Control. Principals of Community Engagement. Public Health Practice Program Office, Atlanta, GA: 1997; 6–9.

    Google Scholar 

  85. St Lawrence JS, Montano DE, Kasprzyk D, Phillips WR, Armstrong K, Leichliter JS. STD screening, testing, case reporting, and clinical and partner notification practices: a national survey of US physicians. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(11):1784–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Centers for Disease Control. Lessons Learned and Emerging Best Practices from the National Syphilis Elimination Program Assessment. 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Ciesielski C, Kahn R, Taylor M, Gallagher K, Prescot L, Arrowsmith S. Control of syphilis outbreaks in men who have sex with men: the role of screening in nonmedical settings. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32(10):S37–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Oxman GL, Doyle LA. Comparison of the case‐finding effectiveness and average costs of screening and partner. Notif Sex Transm Dis. 1996;23(1):51–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rapid response team and technical assistance assessment: Lessons learned. Report to the Director, Division of STD Prevention. Atlanta, GA: CDC August 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  90. CDC. 2010 Performance Measures Quick Reference Guide. Atlanta, GA: http://www.cdc.gov/std/program/2010PerformanceMeasuresQuickGuide.pdf

  91. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lessons Learned and Emerging Best Practices from the National Syphilis Elimination Programs Assessment. Atlanta, GA: CDC September 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  92. CDC. http://www.cdc.gov/stopsyphilis/2009-EBAP-guidance.pdf

  93. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 1998. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Frieden T. A framework for public health action: the health impact pyramid. AJPH. 2010;100:4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jo A. Valentine .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Valentine, J.A., DeLisle, S.J. (2013). Reducing Disparities in Sexual Health: Lessons Learned from the Campaign to Eliminate Infectious Syphilis from the United States. In: Aral, S., Fenton, K., Lipshutz, J. (eds) The New Public Health and STD/HIV Prevention. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4526-5_18

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4526-5_18

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-4525-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-4526-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics