“Life in Manzanar Where There Is a Spring Breeze”: Graffiti at a World War II Japanese American Internment Camp

Abstract

Confinement sites by design replace freedom with restriction and restraints, and individuality with anonymity. However, recent research has shown that even in strictly controlled circumstances, individual emotions, thoughts, and reactions to the social context can be revealed by graffiti. In settings and institutions of confinement, graffiti can have various meanings and functions, including self-identity, enduring dignity, and resistance. Over 280 inscriptions made in wet concrete have been recorded at the Manzanar Relocation Center, one of the ten internment camps where Japanese American civilians were confined during World War II. These hidden texts include militaristic slogans, poems, individual and group names, present and former addresses, whimsical sayings, and expressions of love. Numerous directly and indirectly dated inscriptions allow an examination of how attitudes within the camp changed through time, reflecting both internal camp politics and external world events.

Appendix: World War II Era Inscriptions at Manzanar

Inside Security Fence

Administration Block, Caucasian mess hall addition

• TOM’S CREW Oct 7th 43

• TOM FUJISAKI 10/7/43

• Japanese (Katakana) characters transcribed as “ehu” (or “efu”). It does not appear to be a Japanese word, and may represent the letter F.

• Chinese characters transcribed as “… ju hou …”. The first and third characters are unclear. The second character means celebration; as a Japanese word it may be a transcription of a foreign place name. This inscription was scribbled over when wet.

• Finger marking possibly the Buddhist character “mu” (nothing)

• Outline of a bare footprint

Administration Block, small slab

• KUBOTA

• KUBOTA / 4-1-42

Administration Block, traffic circle

• BUILT BY WADA AND CREW JUNE 10, 1942 A.D.

• Paul TAKEUOHI “42”

• M MASY

• MII

• Yosh YASUDA + B.N.

• MASY M

• N..AMI

• Z (or N)

• YANK

• OKAMUDO

• GERD KEHIHARA / GLENDALE CAL / 6/10/42

• S KUMO

• ELK GROVE

• SM…

• OV

• Yosh

• Two Japanese characters transcribed as ta (rice field or paddy) and yubari (urine). It is not clear how the writer intended these characters to be read, they are not a typical juxtaposition and there are at least three possible ways of reading this character compound. In addition, the character used for urine is not the form used in common conversational Japanese; its use is usually confined to formal writing.

• Handprints

• Pebbles pressed into concrete

Auditorium, concrete cornerstone

• AUDITORI… FEB. 12, 1944

Auditorium, sidewalk

• MC 6/13/44

• NN

• YK 6/13/4…

• FX 4…

Camouflage Net Factory

• ART - Maillet / LONE PINE / 6-6-42

Camouflage Net Factory, small slab

• MAR. 30th 194-

Farm Equipment Storage Building

• 1944

Fire Department

• Bob UARAGAMI

• TOM TAKAHASHI “JERK”

• SHO MATSUSHITA

• GEO H.

• R… G…

• HIDEO JUN (?)

• Oshita

• 19 NOB

• SHO N

• J KIO…

• KEN Hif…

• TAK…

• SOTO OCT 11 1942

• MAS

• MASA …

• AO - 42

• F

• MI

• A

• WANA....A (?)

• Japanese characters transcribed as Dainippon (Great Japan)

• Imprint of a quarter

Guayule Lath House

• 12-30-42

Hospital Laundry Room

• Jed…

Merritt Park, west stele

• Pleasure Park 1943

• Japanese Characters transcribed as “Merritt Park”

Merritt Park, east stele

• Pleasure Park 1943

• Japanese characters transcribed as “Memorial Marker / October 1943”

Military Police Sentry Post, decorative concrete stumps for gate

• 319TH M.P.

• AW

• B.C.

• BERT

• E.MN

• JH

• PL

• WL. WELLES

• XXXXXXX

• BG

Morgue, sidewalk

• BUGS

• SAM 9/9/43

• 1/4/… JACK

• BANZAII

• 9/10/43 Zero Boy’s

• Indistinct Japanese writing / 1943

Motor Pool Office

• E. K. (? ?)

• L I

• Handprint

• Possible child’s footprint

North Park, barbecue grill

• Ray Kubota

• August 1943 / hi

Residential Block 2, small pond at Barracks 1

• Impressed pennies

Residential Block 3, ironing room

• MY

• M

• Frank

Residential Block, laundry room fat trap

• 1942 MAS HAMA

• Possible initials

Residential Block 6, manhole fragment

• E KONI…

Residential Block 7 (High School), manhole apron

• TAKOY

• N K

• V T

• E N

• … K

• MAR

• SAM

• MASNIA

• T … I

• LOVE (?)

• TAK

• … AN

• T A

• T H

• K H T

• J …

• N H

Residential Block 8, ironing room

• “FRED JERK”

Residential Block 9, entry at Barracks 6

• 9=6=1 (shorthand for “Block 9, Barracks 6, Residence 1”)

Residential Block 10, overflow basin at Barracks 11 faucet

• June 6, 1944

Residential Block 10, ironing room

• KURIHARA

• GEO M… M

• 6-19-42

Residential Block 11, entry at Barracks 6

• Shintoni May 21, 1944

Residential Block, overflow basin at Barracks 3 faucet

• 1944

Residential Block 15, pond bridge at Barracks 7

• unclear Japanese characters

Residential Block 15, slab fragments near Barracks 8

• K. ONISHI

• M. NANISHI

• M. NAKAZAW

• …S M 5

• …r 5

• 114

Residential Block 15, entryway at Barracks 13

• 15-13-4 (made with embedded pebbles; shorthand for “Block 15, Barracks 13, Residence 4”)

Residential Block 15, ironing room

• JACKSON / (…LORDAL)

• K.N.

• M.T.

• abstract design

Residential Block 16, laundry room fat trap

• G.T.

• M.K.

Residential Block 17, slab fragments near Barracks 1

• 5.14.44. SA

Residential Block 18, entry at Barracks 11

• Two deliberate handprints; one is very small and must be that of a child.

Residential Block 19, overflow basin at Barracks 12 faucet

• Feb. 25, 1943

Residential Block 22, mess hall pond

• 8-7 1942 (within pond, made with embedded pebbles)

• AUG. 9, 42 (on bridge)

Residential Block 34, entry at Barracks 2

• May 8, 1942

Residential Block 36, small pond at Barracks 12

• 36-12

Service Station

• M.F. 11-9-42

Well #169, concrete apron

• BK 7/24/44

• 7/2…/44 M …

• M … …/…/…

• Finger and hand prints

Outside Security Fence

Bairs Creek Irrigation System, dam cap wall

• 1942

Bairs Creek Irrigation System, diversion box

• WILLY 3-30-43

• ITCH 3-30-43

• WILLY + ALYEE

• W........

• WILLY + A

• S.M. 3-30-40 (sic)

• M.Y. 3-30-43

• MAR. 30 1943

Cemetery Monument

• Front transcription: ireitou, “memorial tower.” The direct translation is: “Monument to console the souls of the dead.” It is a common term for this kind of monument. Back transcription: senkyuhyaku yonjusan nen hachigatsu. manzana nihonjin konryu, “Erected by the Manzanar Japanese, August 1943.”

Chicken Farm, office and processing building, perimeter foundation

• Japanese (katakana) inscription transcribed as chinpo, a colloquial word for “penis.”

Chicken Farm, office and processing building, slab

• Japanese writing transcribed as “Empire of Japan / Great victory”

• Japanese writing transcribed as “Empire of Japan”

Chicken Farm, office and processing building, entryways

• OOKA

• JR A

• Handprint

• J.N.

• AUG 9, 1943

• Two penny impressions

Chicken Farm, addition to office building

• SHISHI K… …

• 1/28/44 / DAVID …

Chicken Farm, chicken coop perimeter foundations

• Frank Bakatare (in Japanese bakatare is analogous to stupid)

• N.Y.K. LINE (nippon yusen kaisha, “Japan Mail Shipping Line”)

• Japanese writing transcribed as toyo kisen gaisha, “Oriental Steamship Company.”

Chicken Farm, chicken coop slabs

• Shoe, boot, and dog prints

• Okamoto / Venice / Calif. ornia

• Oct 15 / Ray O ----

• Oct …4th 1943 / … YASUI

• TOM

• Japanese inscriptions transcribed as “Beat the U.S.”

• Japanese writing transcribed as “Manzanar”

• Japanese writing transcribed as “Philippine independence / Showa 18 (1943) / October 14”

• Japanese writing transcribed as “US surrender without objection to Japan”

• Japanese writing transcribed as “Philippine independence / Showa 18 (1943) / October 14”

Chicken Farm, retaining wall

• GIMP IZUMI / Dec 22 1943

• SHO with two Japanese characters transcribed as Nakayama (a family name).

• MINORU and an abstract design

• GIMP THE … (with a possible erased Japanese character)

• GIMP with possible erased characters

• MIN

• MIN SHISHIDO

Chlorination Tank, ditch and retaining walls

• T. YOTS 2-11-43

• NOB 2-11-43

• 2-11-43 TOJO

• Japanese writing transcribed as (damaged letters) hachi nen (damaged letters) kigensetsu, “… eighth year … National Foundation Day.” Kigensetsu is an anniversary on February 11, that commemorates the accession of the first emperor in mythical times. It is similar to the concept of National Foundation Day, and was an important national holiday of Japan. Damaged letters in the first part are probably showa 1. With the legible letters, they make “Showa 18th year,” which corresponds to 1943. Damaged letters in the second part are probably “February 11.”

Far South Fields Irrigation System, bridge and diversion dam

• TUCSON

• HARVEY NED

• TUCSON 3/6/44

• COMPLETE… MARC…

• Japanese writing transcribed as senkyuhyaku yonjuyonen sangatsu konryu, “Built in March 1944.”

• Japanese writing transcribed as senkyuhyaku yonjuyonen sangatsui (?)gumi konryu, “Built by E Group in March 1944.”

Far South Fields Irrigation System, diversion box

• NOV 1 43

• Japanese writing transcribed as fujisaki (a family name) and kumi (a given name?).

Far North Fields Irrigation System, ditches

• SV 1944 MARK

• JUN, The LOVER

• K.O.+ CH

• Timber

• Tommy /11/43

• Eichi + Michi Timber

• I LOVE MICHI SIGNED …ICHI

• COMPLETED 3.26.43

• OUTT

• RI

• JACKSON NAKASHIMA

• Y.J.K. 1943

• // KJ JY

• Japanese writing transcribed as hichigatsu muika ootsuki(?), “July 6 Ootsuki” (a family name).

• Japanese writing transcribed as manzana dainipponkoku, “Manzanar Great Japan.”

North Fields Irrigation System, dam cap wall

• KO

• TK

Far South Fields Irrigation System, ditches

• MAR 19 1944

• Japanese writing in poor condition transcribed as six possible family names (mizoguchi [?] tamai [?] … … …..da) and senkyuhyaku yonjuyon konryu, “Built 1944.”

Guard Tower 4 Vicinity, ditch

• JAP CAMP

• M.R.C. 1942

• FS (overlapped letters)

• Summers (formed with embedded pebbles)

• RALPH S…

• 1942

Hog Farm, loading ramp

• YOSHINAGA

Hog Farm, weir box

• J L M

• Tom Fujisaki 9/22/43

• Mitsuru Morikawa

Hog Farm, ditch

• 194-

• Japanese writing transcribed as no(?) (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as matsu(?) (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as ita(?) (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as saura (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as hirabayashi (or hiramatsu) (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as yoshimura (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as maeda (family name)

• Japanese writing transcribed as butai bi (damaged character), “Group or Unit B(?).”

Lone Pine Train Station, exterior clapboard siding

• I. SHIGEI 1942 8. …1

• Y FUJII

Manzanar Airport, hangar apron

• SN

• IG

• RW

• 6-25-42

Military Police Compound, small slab

• E.H.

• W.C.W.

• W.E.C.

North Fields Irrigation System, ditches

• 2nd 55 44

• MAKIO TOM

• NH

• YOSH K

• geometric design

North Wells, pipeline support

• FINISHED BY TOM FUJISAKI CREW / MAR. 23, 1944.

Reservoir, cap walls

• STONE WALL BY THE EMERGENCY CREW 2/25/43 (made of embedded pebbles).

• NS

• NOB 3-2-43

• E.S. MURAOKA 14-4-1 3-3-43

• Japanese writing transcribed as itaru (unclear character) manzana kokugun (two unclear characters), “To Manzanar National Army” (?). The last two characters are not clear. They might represent a specific place name within Manzanar instead of National Army.

• Japanese writing transcribed as showa juhachinen…, “18th year …” (corresponds to 1943). The indistinct second line is likely a month and day or a person’s name.

• Japanese writing transcribed as chukun aikoku, “loyal to the emperor and love the country.” A motto favored by the Japanese military government.

• Two columns of indistinct Japanese text, it includes “18th year”

Reservoir, settling basin sidewalls

• Japanese writing transcribed as kougun senryouchi 2/17 /43 itaru(?) manzana …, “the army of the emperor occupied territory 2/17/43 to Manzanar …”

• Japanese writing transcribed as datou eibei, “beat Great Britain and the USA.”

• Japanese writing transcribed as banbanzai, “banzaii”; dainippon teikoku, “The Great Japanese Empire”; manzana kokuryukai honbu,“Manzanar Black Dragon Group headquarter.”

• An abstract design, possibly of a penis

Reservoir, settling basin repair

• REPARED [sic] MAR 19 46 / BY GEO SHEPHERD / AND / RAY M…EX

• … ENT / THE / …R… (obscured by repair work)

Reservoir, sand trap

• CONSTRUCTED BY CHODO & INC. NOV. 9 ’43

• TOMMY MIYAOKA

• TOM M.

• TOMMY - NOV. 1943

• TOMMY M 1943

• Tommy Miyaoka 1943

• I LOVE MYSELF / TOMMY MIYAOKA

• NOV. 1943 MANZANAR CALIF.

• Z. OGAWA

• K E - YOSHINAGA

• 1943 NOV OGAWA

• NOV 12 1943 MANZANAR WALL

• 1943 Y. & T. KOBATA KAI

• K. OGAWA

• Jiro Matsuyama 11/24/43

• K O 11/9/43

• M. ITO + Co

• HY ’45

• ’42 / HK / ’45

• Japanese writing transcribed as senkyuhyaku yonjusannen juichigatsu jurokunichi nakahama, “November 16, 1943 Nakahama” (a family name).

• Two columns of Japanese text. The inscription is too unclear to translate, but is likely a person’s name

Reservoir, anti-siphon pipe apron

• A.J.E.

• H L / L L / A C

• RS

Reservoir, large boulder with stacked rock “lantern”

• Japanese writing transcribed as heiwa, “peace”

South Fields Irrigation System, ditches

• SAT

• 1943.2.28

• JOE 1943

• Feb. 26 / FARM CREW 1943

• March 10, 1943 M

• BANZAI NIPPON

• Japanese writing transcribed as harukaze (damaged characters) fuku manzana seikatsu (unclear character), “Life in Manzanar where there is a spring breeze.”

• Japanese writing transcribed as kuroiwa (a family name) gakusan (a pen name for a male?) Gakusan may be a gagou, a kind of pen name that poets, writers, and painters use. Many Japanese of this generation wrote traditional Japanese or Chinese poems and had gagou. Gagou are sometimes taken from old Chinese literature or made by combinations of Chinese characters with elegant meanings. The meanings of the characters in this gagou are “study” and “mountain.”

• Japanese writing transcribed as showa juhachinen sangatsu tsuitachiihi(?) butai, “18th year (corresponds to 1943) March 1 E (?) Group (or Unit).

South Fields Irrigation System, diversion box

• MAKIO

South Fields Irrigation System, pipeline supports

kokoroyoku yagate mi(unclear character)zara

karitoran

hokoraba hokore

komeno shuhi

• The translation is:

Pleasantly we will soon reap all spikes.

If you want to be proud, be proud for now.

Ugly rice (despicable Americans).

tawamurewa asaseno watashi

samo nitari

sawo nigi kawa(ri)

atti kotti

• The translation is:

This play is like crossing a shallow stream.

Holding a stick.

(ramble) here and there.