Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reward Dependence and Reward Deficiency

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neurophenotypes

Part of the book series: Innovations in Cognitive Neuroscience ((Innovations Cogn.Neuroscience))

  • 700 Accesses

Abstract

Homo sapiens are biologically predisposed to drink, eat, reproduce, and desire pleasurable experiences. Underlying the reward value and affective properties of these behaviors and the stimuli that elicit them is an extended cortical–subcortical network in which dopamine (DA) acts as the major neurotransmitter for reward and reinforcement. Genes that control dopamine-related synthesis, vesicular storage, metabolism, receptor formation, and catabolism have variations that can lead to an impairment of the neurochemical events involved in the neuronal release of DA.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adler CM, Elman I, Weisenfeld N et al (2000) Effects of acute metabolic stress on striatal dopamine release in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 22(5):545–550

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Archer T, Oscar-Berman M, Blum K (2011) Epigenetics in developmental disorder: ADHD and endophenotypes. J Genet Syndr Gene Ther 2(104)

    Google Scholar 

  • ASAM (2011) Public policy statement: definition of addiction. American Society of Addiction Medicine. http://www.asam.org/quality-practice/definition-of-addiction

  • Barbas H (2007) Flow of information for emotions through temporal and orbitofrontal pathways. J Anat 211(2):237–249

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett LF, Mesquita B, Ochsner KN et al (2007) The experience of emotion. Annu Rev Psychol 58:373–403

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bechara A (2003) Risky business: emotion, decision-making, and addiction. J Gambl Stud 19(1):23–51

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger LR, de Ruiter DJ, Churchill SE et al (2010) Australopithecus sediba: a new species of homo-like australopith from South Africa. Science 328(5975):195–204

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K (2011) Neurogenetics and nutrigenomics of reward deficiency syndrome. In: Barh D, Blum D, Madigan K (eds) Omcics biomedical perspectives and application. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 535–564

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ et al (1990) Allelic association of human dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. JAMA 263(15):2055–2060

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ et al (1991) Association of the A1 allele of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with severe alcoholism. Alcohol 8(5):409–416

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Sheridan PJ, Wood RC et al (1995) Dopamine D2 receptor gene variants: association and linkage studies in impulsive-addictive-compulsive behaviour. Pharmacogenet 5(3):121–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Braverman ER, Wood RC et al (1996a) Increased prevalence of the Taq I A1 allele of the dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) in obesity with comorbid substance use disorder: a preliminary report. Pharmacogenetics 6(4):297–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Cull JG, Braverman ER et al (1996b) Reward deficiency syndrome. Am Sci 84:132–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Sheridan PJ, Wood RC et al (1996c) The D2 dopamine receptor gene as a determinant of reward deficiency syndrome. J R Soc Med 89(7):396–400

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Braverman ER, Wu S et al (1997) Association of polymorphisms of dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2), and dopamine transporter (DAT1) genes with schizoid/avoidant behaviors (SAB). Mol Psychiatry 2(3):239–246

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Braverman ER, Holder JM et al (2000) Reward deficiency syndrome: a biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive, and compulsive behaviors. J Psychoactive Drugs 32 Suppl:i–iv, 1–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Chen AL, Chen TJ et al (2008) Activation instead of blocking mesolimbic dopaminergic reward circuitry is a preferred modality in the long term treatment of reward deficiency syndrome (RDS): a commentary. Theor Biol Med Model 5:24

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Chen AL, Oscar-Berman M et al (2011a) Generational association studies of dopaminergic genes in Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) subjects: selecting appropriate phenotypes for reward dependence behaviors. Int J Environ Res Public Health 8(12):4425–4459

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Liu Y, Shriner R et al (2011b) Reward circuitry dopaminergic activation regulates food and drug craving behavior. Curr Pharm Des 17(12):1158–1167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Chen AL, Giordano J et al (2012a) The addictive brain: all roads lead to dopamine. J Psychoactive Drugs 22(2):134–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S et al (2012b) Sex, drugs, and rock ‘n’ roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms. J Psychoactive Drugs 44(1):38–55

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bolla KI, Eldreth DA, Matochik JA et al (2005) Neural substrates of faulty decision-making in abstinent marijuana users. Neuroimage 26(2):480–492

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boundy VA, Pacheco MA, Guan W et al (1995) Agonists and antagonists differentially regulate the high affinity state of the D2L receptor in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Mol Pharmacol 48(5):956–964

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brand M, Fujiwara E, Borsutzky S et al (2005) Decision-making deficits of Korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: associations with executive functions. Neuropsychology 19(3):267–277

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brand M, Pawlikowski M, Labudda K et al (2009) Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. Brain Cogn 69(2):279–290

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruijnzeel AW, Repetto M, Gold MS (2004) Neurobiological mechanisms in addictive and psychiatric disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am 27(4):661–674

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budygin EA, Park J, Bass CE et al (2012) Aversive stimulus differentially triggers subsecond dopamine release in reward regions. Neuroscience 201:331–337

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carboni E, Silvagni A, Rolando MT et al (2000) Stimulation of in vivo dopamine transmission in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis by reinforcing drugs. J Neurosci 20(20):RC102

    Google Scholar 

  • Castiglione CM, Deinard AS, Speed WC et al (1995) Evolution of haplotypes at the DRD2 locus. Am J Hum Genet 57(6):1445–1456

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chauvet C, Lardeux V, Goldberg SR et al (2009) Environmental enrichment reduces cocaine seeking and reinstatement induced by cues and stress but not by cocaine. Neuropsychopharmacology 34(13):2767–2778

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen TJ, Blum K, Chen AL et al (2011a) Neurogenetics and clinical evidence for the putative activation of the brain reward circuitry by a neuroadaptagen: proposing an addiction candidate gene panel map. J Psychoactive Drugs 43(2):108–127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen YI, Famous K, Xu H et al (2011b) Cocaine self-administration leads to alterations in temporal responses to cocaine challenge in limbic and motor circuitry. Eur J Neurosci 34(5):800–815

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clark WR, Grunstein M (2000) Are we hardwired? The role of genes in human behavior, 1st edn. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Comings D (1996) The gene bomb: does higher education and advanced technology accelerate the selection of genes for learning disorders, ADHD, addictive, and disruptive behaviors?. Hope Press, Toronto

    Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Blum K (2000) Reward deficiency syndrome: genetic aspects of behavioral disorders. Prog Brain Res 126:325–341

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, MacMurray J, Johnson P et al (1995) Dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) haplotypes and the defense style questionnaire in substance abuse, Tourette syndrome, and controls. Biol Psychiatry 37(11):798–805

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Gade R, MacMurray JP et al (1996) Genetic variants of the human obesity (OB) gene: association with body mass index in young women, psychiatric symptoms, and interaction with the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene. Mol Psychiatry 1(4):325–335

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Dietz G, Johnson JP et al (1999) Association of the enkephalinase gene with low amplitude P300 waves. NeuroReport 10(11):2283–2285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N et al (2001) The additive effect of neurotransmitter genes in pathological gambling. Clin Genet 60(2):107–116

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connor JP, Young RM, Lawford BR et al (2002) D(2) dopamine receptor (DRD2) polymorphism is associated with severity of alcohol dependence. Eur Psychiatry 17(1):17–23

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper ML, Frone MR, Russell M et al (1995) Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: a motivational model of alcohol use. J Pers Soc Psychol 69(5):990–1005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dackis CA, Gold MS (1985) New concepts in cocaine addiction: the dopamine depletion hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 9(3):469–477

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dackis CA, Gold MS, Davies RK et al (1985) Bromocriptine treatment for cocaine abuse: the dopamine depletion hypothesis. Int J Psychiatry Med 15(2):125–135

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis PF, Ozias MK, Carlson SE et al (2010) Dopamine receptor alterations in female rats with diet-induced decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): interactions with reproductive status. Nutr Neurosci 13(4):161–169

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Di Chiara G (1999) Drug addiction as dopamine-dependent associative learning disorder. Eur J Pharmacol 375(1–3):13–30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Chiara G (2002) Nucleus accumbens shell and core dopamine: differential role in behavior and addiction. Behav Brain Res 137(1–2):75–114

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick DM, Edenberg HJ, Xuei X et al (2004) Association of GABRG3 with alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 28(1):4–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg DT, Campbell B, Mackillop J et al (2007) Season of birth and dopamine receptor gene associations with impulsivity, sensation seeking and reproductive behaviors. PLoS ONE 2(11):e1216

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Epping-Jordan MP, Markou A, Koob GF (1998) The dopamine D-1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 injected into the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis decreased cocaine reinforcement in the rat. Brain Res 784(1–2):105–115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson C (2007) The science of addiction: from neurobiology to treatment. WW Norton & Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner EL (2005) Brain-reward mechanisms. In: Lowinson J, Ruiz P, Millman R et al (eds) Substance abuse: a comprehensive textbook, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiadis JR, Reinders AA, Paans AM et al (2009) Men versus women on sexual brain function: prominent differences during tactile genital stimulation, but not during orgasm. Hum Brain Mapp 30(10):3089–3101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano J, Blum K (2010) Probing the mysteries of recovery through nutrigenomics and holistic medicine: science meets recovery. The Counselor 17(52)

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman D, Dean M, Brown GL et al (1992) D2 dopamine receptor genotype and cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol in alcoholics in Finland and the United States. Acta Psychiatr Scand 86(5):351–357

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND (2002) Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 159(10):1642–1652

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND (2011a) Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex in addiction: neuroimaging findings and clinical implications. Nat Rev Neurosci 12(11):652–669

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND (2011b) Oral methylphenidate normalizes cingulate activity and decreases impulsivity in cocaine addiction during an emotionally salient cognitive task. Neuropsychopharmacology 36(1):366–367

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon AS, Yao L, Jiang Z et al (2001) Ethanol acts synergistically with a D2 dopamine agonist to cause translocation of protein kinase C. Mol Pharmacol 59(1):153–160

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grandy DK, Litt M, Allen L et al (1989) The human dopamine D2 receptor gene is located on chromosome 11 at q22-q23 and identifies a TaqI RFLP. Am J Hum Genet 45(5):778–785

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hietala J, West C, Syvalahti E et al (1994) Striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding characteristics in vivo in patients with alcohol dependence. Psychopharmacology 116(3):285–290

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodge CW, Cox AA (1998) The discriminative stimulus effects of ethanol are mediated by NMDA and GABA(A) receptors in specific limbic brain regions. Psychopharmacology 139(1–2):95–107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodge CW, Chappelle AM, Samson HH (1996) Dopamine receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex influence ethanol and sucrose-reinforced responding. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20(9):1631–1638

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joutsa J, Johansson J, Niemela S et al (2012) Mesolimbic dopamine release is linked to symptom severity in pathological gambling. Neuroimage 60(4):1992–1999

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirsch P, Reuter M, Mier D et al (2006) Imaging gene-substance interactions: the effect of the DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism and the dopamine agonist bromocriptine on the brain activation during the anticipation of reward. Neurosci Lett 405(3):196–201

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konkle AT, Bielajew C (2004) Tracing the neuroanatomical profiles of reward pathways with markers of neuronal activation. Rev Neurosci 15(6):383–414

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koob GF (2003) Alcoholism: allostasis and beyond. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 27(2):232–243

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koob G, Kreek MJ (2007) Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. Am J Psychiatry 164(8):1149–1159

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Koob GF, Le Moal M (2001) Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology 24(2):97–129

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuperstein F, Yakubov E, Dinerman P et al (2005) Overexpression of dopamine receptor genes and their products in the postnatal rat brain following maternal n-3 fatty acid dietary deficiency. J Neurochem 95(6):1550–1562

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawford BR, Young RM, Rowell JA et al (1995) Bromocriptine in the treatment of alcoholics with the D2 dopamine receptor A1 allele. Nat Med 1(4):337–341

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux JE (2000) Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci 23:155–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li CY, Mao X, Wei L (2008) Genes and (common) pathways underlying drug addiction. PLoS Comput Biol 4(1):e2

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Makris N, Oscar-Berman M, Jaffin SK et al (2008) Decreased volume of the brain reward system in alcoholism. Biol Psychiatry 64(3):192–202

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Melis M, Spiga S, Diana M (2005) The dopamine hypothesis of drug addiction: hypodopaminergic state. Int Rev Neurobiol 63:101–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merlo LJ, Gold MS (2008) Prescription opioid abuse and dependence among physicians: hypotheses and treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry 16(3):181–194

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muller NG, Machado L, Knight RT (2002) Contributions of subregions of the prefrontal cortex to working memory: evidence from brain lesions in humans. J Cogn Neurosci 14(5):673–686

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noble EP, Blum K, Ritchie T et al (1991) Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with receptor-binding characteristics in alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48(7):648–654

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noble EP, Syndulko K, Fitch RJ et al (1994) D2 dopamine receptor TaqI A alleles in medically ill alcoholic and nonalcoholic patients. Alcohol Alcohol 29(6):729–744

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ochsner KN, Gross JJ (2007) The neural architecture of emotional regulation. Handbook of emotion regulation. Guilford Press, New York, pp 87–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Olsen CM (2011) Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions. Neuropharmacology 61(7):1109–1122

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oscar-Berman M, Bowirrat A (2005) Genetic influences in emotional dysfunction and alcoholism-related brain damage. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 1(3):211–229

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pandya D, Yeterian E (2002) The anatomical substrates of emotional behavior: the role of the cerebral cortex. In: Grafman IJ, Boller F (eds) The Frontal Lobes, 2nd edn. Elsevier, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson JC, Ungerleider LG, Bandettini PA (2002) Task-independent functional brain activity correlation with skin conductance changes: an fMRI study. Neuroimage 17(4):1797–1806

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peciña S, Smith KS, Berridge KC (2006) Hedonic hot spots in the brain. Neuroscientist 12(6):500–511

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peciña M, Mickey BJ, Love T et al (2012) DRD2 polymorphisms modulate reward and emotion processing, dopamine neurotransmission and openness to experience. Cortex 49(3):877–890

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pickens RW, Svikis DS, McGue M et al (1991) Heterogeneity in the inheritance of alcoholism. A study of male and female twins. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48(1):19–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poldrack RA, Wagner AD, Prull MW et al (1999) Functional specialization for semantic and phonological processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex. Neuroimage 10(1):15–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Previc FH (1999) Dopamine and the origins of human intelligence. Brain Cogn 41(3):299–350

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raghanti MA, Stimpson CD, Marcinkiewicz JL et al (2008) Cortical dopaminergic innervation among humans, chimpanzees, and macaque monkeys: a comparative study. Neuroscience 155(1):203–220

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport SI (1990) Integrated phylogeny of the primate brain, with special reference to humans and their diseases. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 15(3):267–294

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reuter J, Raedler T, Rose M et al (2005) Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic reward system. Nat Neurosci 8(2):147–148

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rommelspacher H, Raeder C, Kaulen P et al (1992) Adaptive changes of dopamine-D2 receptors in rat brain following ethanol withdrawal: a quantitative autoradiographic investigation. Alcohol 9(5):355–362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH (2007) Dual dopamine/serotonin releasers as potential medications for stimulant and alcohol addictions. AAPS J 9(1):E1–E10

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rushworth MF, Noonan MP, Boorman ED et al (2011) Frontal cortex and reward-guided learning and decision-making. Neuron 70(6):1054–1069

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz JM (2005) The interface between impulse-control disorders and addictions: are pleasure pathway responses shared neurobiological substrates? Sex Addict Compulsivity 12(2–3):149–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serý O, Drtilkova I, Theiner P et al (2006) Polymorphism of DRD2 gene and ADHD. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 27(1–2):236–240

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith M, Wasmuth J, McPherson JD (1989) Cosegregation of an 11q22.3-9p22 translocation with affective disorder: proximity of the dopamine D2 receptor gene relative to the translocation breakpoint. Am J Hum Genet 45(A220)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman S, Sussman AN (2011) Considering the definition of addiction. Int J Environ Res Public Health 8(10):4025–4038

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Teh LK, Izuddin AF, M HF et al (2012) Tridimensional personalities and polymorphism of dopamine D2 receptor among heroin addicts. Biol Res Nurs 14(2):188–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Thanos PK, Volkow ND, Freimuth P et al (2001) Overexpression of dopamine D2 receptors reduces alcohol self-administration. J Neurochem 78(5):1094–1103

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thanos PK, Michaelides M, Umegaki H et al (2008) D2R DNA transfer into the nucleus accumbens attenuates cocaine self-administration in rats. Synapse 62(7):481–486

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thut G, Schultz W, Roelcke U et al (1997) Activation of the human brain by monetary reward. NeuroReport 8(5):1225–1228

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiihonen J, Kuikka J, Bergstrom K et al (1995) Altered striatal dopamine re-uptake site densities in habitually violent and non-violent alcoholics. Nat Med 1(7):654–657

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tupala E, Hall H, Bergstrom K et al (2001a) Dopamine D(2)/D(3)-receptor and transporter densities in nucleus accumbens and amygdala of type 1 and 2 alcoholics. Mol Psychiatry 6(3):261–267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tupala E, Kuikka JT, Hall H et al (2001b) Measurement of the striatal dopamine transporter density and heterogeneity in type 1 alcoholics using human whole hemisphere autoradiography. Neuroimage 14(1 Pt 1):87–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tupala E, Hall H, Bergstrom K et al (2003) Dopamine D2 receptors and transporters in type 1 and 2 alcoholics measured with human whole hemisphere autoradiography. Hum Brain Mapp 20(2):91–102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhl G, Blum K, Noble E et al (1993) Substance abuse vulnerability and D2 receptor genes. Trends Neurosci 16(3):83–88

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ et al (2001) Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 158(12):2015–2021

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ (2002) Role of dopamine in drug reinforcement and addiction in humans: results from imaging studies. Behav Pharmacol 13(5–6):355–366

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wightman RM, Robinson DL (2002) Transient changes in mesolimbic dopamine and their association with ‘reward’. J Neurochem 82(4):721–735

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood JN, Grafman J (2003) Human prefrontal cortex: processing and representational perspectives. Nat Rev Neurosci 4(2):139–147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wrase J, Schlagenhauf F, Kienast T et al (2007) Dysfunction of reward processing correlates with alcohol craving in detoxified alcoholics. Neuroimage 35(2):787–794

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Behavioral Neuroscience, Psychiatry, Neurology, and Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, and VA Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA

    Marlene Oscar-Berman

  2. Department of Psychiatry & McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, USA

    Kenneth Blum

  3. Dominion Diagnostics, Inc, North Kingstown, RI, USA

    Kenneth Blum

  4. G&G Holistic Addiction Treatment Center, Miami, FL, USA

    Kenneth Blum

  5. Malibu Beach Recovery Center, Malibu, CA, USA

    Kenneth Blum

  6. Path Foundation, New York, NY, USA

    Kenneth Blum

  7. Center for Genomics and Applied Gene Technology, Institute of Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology, Purba Medinipur, India

    Kenneth Blum

Authors
  1. Marlene Oscar-Berman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kenneth Blum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marlene Oscar-Berman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Communication science & Disorders/Behavioral Neuroscience , Emerson College; Boston University school of Medicine, BOSTON, Massachusetts, USA

    Vinoth Jagaroo

  2. Marine medical centre and Marine Medical Research, Chan School of Public Health , Tufts University School of medicine and Harvard TH, BOSTON, Massachusetts, USA

    Susan L. Santangelo

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Oscar-Berman, M., Blum, K. (2016). Reward Dependence and Reward Deficiency. In: Jagaroo, V., Santangelo, S. (eds) Neurophenotypes. Innovations in Cognitive Neuroscience. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3846-5_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation