Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Treatment of Retinal Vein Occlusions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Retinal Vein Occlusions

  • 1171 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter covers treatments in current use for retinal vein occlusion (RVO). Over time, many proposed treatments (e.g., radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO)) have been tried and discarded as evidence accumulates of inefficacy or too many adverse events. These treatments are covered, mainly for historical purposes, in Chap. 15. On the other hand, some treatments are not adopted because of impracticality or cost-benefit considerations, rather than because of inefficacy (e.g., hemodilution for RVO). These therapies are covered in this chapter and are clearly identified as unadopted, with the reason each is not used. Some recently introduced treatments have not withstood the test for efficacy – a prospective randomized controlled clinical trial – but have not been rejected either. These treatments are also covered here and clearly identified as provisional. A table of abbreviations used in this chapter follows (Table 13.1). The abbreviations are spelled out at their first occurrence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Abu El-Asrar AM, Gader AGMA, Al-Amro S, Al-Momen AK. Hypercoagulable states in patients with retinal venous occlusion. Doc Ophthalmol. 1998;95:133–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Ach T, Hoeh AE, Schaal KB, Scheuerle AF, Dithmar S. Predictive factors for changes in macular edema in intravitreal bevacizumab therapy of retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;248:155–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Adamis AP, Shima DT, Tolentino MJ, Gragouda ES, Ferrara N, Folkman J, D’Amore PA, Miller JW. Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor prevents retinal ischemia-associated iris neovascularization in a nonhuman primate. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:66–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Ahmadieh H, Moradian S, Malihi M. Rapid reg­ression of extensive retinovitreal neovascularization secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion after a single intravitreal injection of bevacizumab. Int Ophthalmol. 2005; 26:191–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Al-Hussainy S, Dodson PM, Gibson JM. Pain response and follow-up of patients undergoing panretinal laser photocoagulation with reduced exposure times. Eye. 2008;22:96–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Alkawas AA, Shahien EA, Hussein AM. Management of neovascular glaucoma with panretinal photocoagulation, intravitreal bevacizumab, and subsequent trabeculectomy with mitomycin C. J Glaucoma. 2010;19:622–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Arnarsson A, Stefansson E. Laser treatment and the mechanism of edema reduction in branch retinal vein occlusion. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:877–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Arvas S, Ocakoglu O, Ozkan S. The capillary blood flow in ischaemic type central retinal vein occlusion: the effect of laser photocoagulation. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2002;80:490–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Asano S, Miyake K, Miyake S, Ota I. Relationship between blood-aqueous barrier disruption and ischemic macular edema in patients with branch or central retinal vein occlusion: effects of sub-tenon triamcinolone acetonide injection. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2007;23:577–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Astam N, Batioglu F, Ozmert E. Short-term efficacy of intravitreal bevacizumab for the treatment of macular edema due to diabetic retinopathy and retinal vein occlusion. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29:343–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Audren F, Tod M, Massin P, Benosman R, Haouchione B, Erginay A, Caulin C, Gaudric A, Bergmann JF. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of the effect of triamcinolone acetonide on central macular thickness in patients with diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2004;45:3435–41.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Avci R, Inan UU, Kaderli B. Evaluation of arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy for decompression of branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 2008;22:120–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Avci R, Kaderli B, Avci B, Simsek S, Baykara M, Kahveci Z, Gelisken O, Yucel AA. Pars plana vitrectomy and removal of the internal limiting membrane in the treatment of chronic macular oedema. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2004;242:845–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Badala F. The treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion with bevacizumab. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2008; 19:234–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Bahar I, Hershcovici T, Axer-Siegel R, Molad Y, Weinberger D, Kramer M. Systemic and ocular manifestations of catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: a case report. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2007; 1:10–1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Bashshur ZF, Taher A, Masri AF, Najjar D, Arayssi TK, Noureddin BN. Anticardiolipin antibodies in patients with retinal vein occlusion and no risk factors: a prospective study. Retina. 2003;23:486–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Batioglu F, Astam N, Ozmert E. Rapid improvement of retinal and iris neovascularization after a single intravitreal bevacizumab injection in a patient with central retinal vein occlusion and neovascular glaucoma. Int Ophthalmol. 2008;28:59–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Battaglia PM, Saviano S, Bergamini L, Ravalico G. Grid laser treatment of macular edema in macular branch retinal vein occlusion. Doc Ophthalmol. 1999;97:427–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Bayer and Regeneron report positive results for VEGF-Trap-Eye in second phase 3 study in central retinal vein occlusion. http://newsroom.regeneron.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=572585. Accessed 15 Dec 2011.

  20. Bearelly S, Cooney MJ, Stinnett S, Fekrat S. Intravitreal triamcinolone for cystoid macular edema related to branch retinal vein occlusion. Ann Ophthal­mol (Skokie). 2006;38:317–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Becquet F, Le Rouic JF, Zanlonghi X, Peronnet P, Hermouet-Leclair E, Pousset-Decre C, Ducournau D. Efficiency of surgical treatment for chronic macular edema due to branch retinal vein occlusion. J Fr Ophthalmol. 2003;26:570–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Blankenship GW, Okun E. Retinal tributary vein occlusion: history and management by photocoagulation. Arch Ophthalmol. 1973;89:363.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Boyd SR, Zachary I, Chakravarthy U, Allen GJ, Wisdom GB, Cree IA, Martin JF, Hykin PG. Correlation of increased vascular endothelial growth factor with neovascularization and permeability in ischemic central vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2002;120:1644–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser scatter photocoagulation for prevention of neovascularization and vitreous hemorrhage in branch vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104:34–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Brattstrom L. Vitamins as homocysteine-lowering agents. J Nutr. 1996;126:12768–808.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Brinkmann R, Roider J, Birngruber R. Selective retina therapy (SRT): a review ON. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 2006;302:51–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Brooks AM, Gillies WE. The development and ­management of neovascular glaucoma. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1990;18:179–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Brown DM, Campochiaro PA, Bhisitkul RB, et al. Sustained benefits from ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: 12-month outcomes of a phase III study. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:1594–602.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Brown DM, Campochiaro PA, Singh RP, Li Z, Gray S, Saroj N, Rundle AC, Rubio RG, Murahashi WY, CRUISE Investigators. Ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion. Six month primary end point results of a phase III study. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:1124–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Browning DJ. Diabetic macular edema. In: Diabetic retinopathy: evidence based management. New York: Springer; 2010. p. 171.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  31. Browning DJ, Fraser CM. Retinal vein occlusions in patients taking warfarin. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:1196–2000.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Buehl W, Sacu S, Schmidt-Erfurth U. Retinal vein occlusions. Dev Ophthalmol. 2010;46:54–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Cahill MT, Kaiser PK, Sears JE, Fekrat S. The effect of arteriovenous sheathotomy on cystoid macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87:1329–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Cakir M, Dogan M, Bayraktar Z, et al. Efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone for the treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion in eyes with or without grid laser photocoagulation. Retina. 2008;28:465–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Campbell CJ, Wise GN. Photocoagulation therapy of branch retinal vein obstructions. Am J Ophthalmol. 1973;75:28–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Campochiaro PA, Heier JS, Feiner L, Gray S, Saroj N, Rundle AC, Murahashi WY, Rubio RG, BRAVO Investigators. Ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion. Six month primary end point results of a phase III study. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:1102–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Campochiaro PA, Hafiz G, Channa R, Shah SM, Nguyen QD, Ying H, Do DV, Zimmer-Galler I, Solomon SD, Sung JU. Antagonism of vascular endothelial growth factor for macular edema caused by retinal vein occlusions: two-year outcomes. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:2387–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. CATT Research Group. Ranibizumab and bevacizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1897–908.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Cekiç O, Cakir M, Yazici AT, Alagöz N, Bozkurt E, Faruk Yilmaz O. A comparison of three different intravitreal treatment modalities of macular edema due to branch retinal vein occlusion. Curr Eye Res. 2011;35:925–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Chak M, Wallace GR, Graham EM, Stanford MR. Thrombophilia: genetic polymorphisms and their association with retinal vascular occlusive disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85:883–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Chalam KV, Keshavamurthy R, Brar VS. Spectral domain OCT documented resolution of recalcitrant macular edema after intravitreal bevacizumab in branch retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2008;18:831–3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Chen SD, Sundaram V, Lochhead J, Patel CK. Intravitreal triamcinolone for the treatment of ischemic macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141:876–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Chen SDM, Lochhead J, McDonald B, Patel CK. Pseudohypopyon after intravitreal triamcinolone injection for the treatment of pseudophakic cystoid macular edema. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;88:843–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Chen CH, Chen YH, Wu PC, Chen YJ, Lee JJ, Liu YC, Kuo HK. Treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion induced macular edema in treatment-naive cases with a single intravitreal triamcinolone or bevacizumab injection. Chang Gung Med J. 2010;33:424–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Chen HC, Wiek J, Gupta A, Luckie A, Kohner EM. Effect of isovolaemic haemodilution on visual outcome in branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:162–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Chen SDM, Lochhead J, Patel CK, Frith P. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for ischaemic macular oedema caused by branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88:154–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Cheng KC, Wu WC, Chen KJ. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide vs bevacizumab for treatment of macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 2009;23:2023–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Chew EY, Trope GE, Mitchell BJ. Diurnal intraocular pressure in young adults with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:1545–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Chin HS, Park TS, Moon YS, Oh JH. Difference in clearance of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide between vitrectomized and nonvitrectomized eyes. Retina. 2005;25:556–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Christoffersen NLB, Larson M. Pathophysiology and hemodynamics of BRVO. Ophthalmology. 1999;106:2054–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Chuang LH, Yeung L, Wang NK, Shen-Lih CH, Ku WC, Lai CC. Secondary ocular hypertension after intravitreal injection with 2 mg or 4 mg of triamcinolone in retinal vein occlusion. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2010;26:325–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Chung EJ, Hong YT, Lee SC, Kwon OW, Koh HJ. Prognostic factors for visual outcome after intravitreal bevacizumab for macular edema due to branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246:1241–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Chung EJ, Lee H, Koh HJ. Arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy versus intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injection for treatment of macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246:967–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Cobo-Soriano R, Sanchez-Ramon S, Aparicio MJ, Teijeiro MA, Vidal P, Suarez-Leoz M, Rodriguez-Mahou M, Rodriguez-Huerta A, Fernandez-Cruz E, Cortes C. Antiphospholipid antibodies and retinal thrombosis in patients without risk factors: a prospective case-control study. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128: 725–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Costa RA, Jorge R, Calucci D, Melo LA, Cardillo JA, Scott IU. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) for central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusions: IBeVO study. Retina. 2007;27:141–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Crafoord S, Karlsson N, la Cour M. Sheathotomy in complicated cases of branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008;86:146–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Dal Canto AJ, Downs-Kelly E, Perry JD. Ptosis and orbital fat prolapse after posterior sub-tenon’s capsule triamcinolone injection. Ophthalmology. 2005;112:1092–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. De Geronimo F, Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G, Soubrane G. A quantitative in vivo study of retinal thickness before and after laser treatment for macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2001;11:145–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. de Lahitte GD, Quintyn JC, Leparmentier A, Mathis A. Retinal vein occlusions in patients treated with anticoagulant and/or platelet aggregation inhibitors. Five case-studies. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2007;30:145–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Decroos FC, Shuler RK, Stinnett S, Fekrat S. Pars plana vitrectomy, internal limiting membrane peeling, and panretinal endophotocoagulation for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147:627–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Degenring RF, Kamppeter B, Kreissig I, Jonas JB. Morphological and functional changes after intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003;81:548–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network. Comparison of the modified early treatment diabetic retinopathy study and mild macular grid laser photocoagulation strategies for diabetic macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125:469–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network. Randomized trial of peribulbar triamcinolone acetonide with and without focal photocoagulation for mild diabetic macular edema. A pilot study. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:1190–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network, Browning DJ, Glassman AR, Aiello LP, Beck RW, Brown DM, Fong DS, Bressler NM, Danis RP, Kinyoun JL, Nguyen QD, Bhavsar AR, Gottlieb J, Pieramici DJ, Rauser ME, Apte RS, Lim JI, Miskala PH. Relationship between optical coherence tomography-measured central retinal thickness and visual acuity in diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:525–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Dodds EM, Lowder CY, Foster RE. Plasmapheresis treatment of central retinal vein occlusion in a young adult. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;119:519–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Donati G, Kapetanios A, Dubois-Dauphin M, Pournaras CJ. Caspase-related apoptosis in chronic ischaemic microangiopathy following experimental vein occlusion in mini-pigs. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008; 86:302–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Duff I, Falls H, Linman J. Anticoagulant therapy in occlusive vascular disease of the retina. Arch Ophthalmol. 1951;46:601–17.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Ehrlich R, Ciulla TA, Moss AM, Harris A. Combined treatment of intravitreal bevacizumab and intravitreal triamcinolone in patients with retinal vein occlusion: 6 months of follow-up. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;248:375–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Elman MJ. Thrombolytic therapy for central retinal vein occlusion: results of a pilot study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1996;94:471–504.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Erdol H, Akyol N. Arterial crimping in branch retinal vein occlusion with macular edema. Acta Ophthalmol. 2000;78:456–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Esrick E, Subramanian ML, Heier JS, Devaiah AK, Topping TM, Frederick AR, Morley MG. Multiple laser treatments for macular edema attributable to branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139:653–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Evans K, Wishart PK, McGalliard JN. Neovascular complications after central retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 1993;7:520–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Fekrat S, Shea AM, Hammill BG, Nguyen H, Kowalski JW, Schulman KA, Curtis LH. Resource use and costs of branch and central retinal vein occlusion in the elderly. Curr Med Res Opin. 2010;26:223–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Feltgen N, Junker B, Agostini H, Hansen LL. Retinal endovascular lysis in ischemic central retinal vein occlusion: one-year results of a pilot study. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:716–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Feltgen N, Herrmann J, Agostini H, Sammain A, Hansen LL. Arterio-venous dissection after isovolaemic haemodilution in branch retinal vein occlusion: a non-randomised prospective study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244:829–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Figueroa MS, Contreras I, Noval S, Arruabarrena C. Results of bevacizumab as the primary treatment for retinal vein occlusions. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010;94:1052–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Figueroa MS, Torres R, Alvarez MT. Comparative study of vitrectomy with and without vein decompression for branch retinal vein occlusion: a pilot study. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2004;14:40–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Finkelstein D. Ischemic macular edema. Recognition and favorable natural history in branch vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:1427–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Fish GE. Intravitreous bevacizumab in the treatment of macular edema from branch retinal vein occlusion and hemisphere retinal vein occlusion. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2008;106:276–300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Fong D, Segal PP, Myers F, Ferris FL, Hubbard LD, Davis MD, Aalto M. Subretinal fibrosis in diabetic macular edema; ETDRS report 23. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:873–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Gitter KA, Cohen G, Baber BW. Photocoagulation in venous occlusive disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 1975;79:578–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G, Chabanel A, Zourdani A, Lelong F, Samama MM. A randomized, double-masked study on the treatment of retinal vein occlusion with troxerutin. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;118:421–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Glacet-Bernard A, Kuhn D, Vine AK, Oubraham H, Coscas G, Soubrane G. Treatment of recent onset central retinal vein occlusion with intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator: a pilot study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:609–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Glacet-Bernard A, Zourdani A, Milhoub M, Maraqua N, Coscas G, Soubrane G. Effect of isovolemic hemodilution in central retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001;239:909–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Greenberg PB, Marlidis A, Rogers AH, Duker JS, Reichel E. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for macular oedema due to central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010;86:247–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Gregori NZ, Feuer W, Rosenfeld PJ. Novel method for analyzing snellen visual acuity measurements. Retina. 2010;30:1046–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Gregori NZ, Gaitan J, Rosenfield PJ, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) for the management of central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2008;28:1325–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Gregori NZ, Rattan GH, Rosenfeld PJ, et al. Safety and efficacy of intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) for the management of branch and hemiretinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2009;29:913–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Gregori NZ, Rattan GH, Rosenfeld PJ, Puliafito CA, Feuer W, Flynn Jr HW, Berrocal AM, Al Attar L, Dubovy S, Smiddy WE. Safety and efficacy of intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) for the management of branch and hemiretinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2009;29:913–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Gunduz K, Bakri SJ. Intravitreal bevacizumab for macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 2008;22:1168–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Gutierrez JCM, Barquet LA, Caminal JM. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) in the treatment of macular edema secondary to retinal vein occlusion. Clin Ophthalmol. 2008;2:787–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Gutman FA, Zegarra H. The natural course of temporal retinal vein occlusion. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1974;78:178–92.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Haller JA, Bandello F, Belfort Jr R, et al. Randomized, sham-controlled trial of dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:1134–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Hansen LL, Danisevskis P, Arntz HR, Hovener G, Wiederholt M. A randomized prospective study on treatment of central retinal vein occlusion by isovolaemic haemodilution and photocoagulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1985;69:108–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Hansen LL, Wiek J, Widerholt M. A randomised prospective study of treatment on non-ischemic central retinal vein occlusion by isovolaemic haemodilution. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73:895–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Hartnett ME, Laposata M, Van Cott E. Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome in a six-year-old female patient. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135:542–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Hashizume K, Nabeshima T, Fujiwara T, Machida S, Kurosaka D. A case of herpetic epithelial keratitis after triamcinolone acetonide subtenon injection. Cornea. 2009;28:463–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Hattenbach LO, Friedrich AC, Lerche R, Scharrer I, Baatz H, Margaron F, Richard G, Behrens-Baumann W, Ohrloff C. Retinal vein occlusion and low-dose fibrinolytic therapy (ROLF): a prospective, rando­mized, controlled multicenter study of low-dose recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus hemodi­lution in retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2009; 29:932–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Hayashi K, Hayashi H. Intravitreal versus retrobulbar injections of triamcinolone for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139:972–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Hayreh SS. So-called “central retinal vein occlusion” II: venous stasis retinopathy. Ophthalmologica. 1976;172:14–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Hayreh SS. Correspondence. Retina. 2007;27:514–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Hayreh SS, Fraterrigo L, Jonas J. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with cilioretinal artery occlusion. Retina. 2008;28:581–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Hayreh SS, Klugman MR, Podhajsky P, Servais GE, Peyman G. Argon laser panretinal photocoagulation in ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1990;228:281–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman MB. Central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusion: role of anti-platelet aggregation agents and anticoagulants. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:1603–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman MB. Natural history of visual outcome in central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:119–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Hayreh SS, Rubenstein L, Podhajsky P. Argon laser photocoagulation in treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion. A prospective clinical trial. Ophthalmologica. 1993;206:1–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Incidence of various types of retinal vein occlusion and their recurrence and demographic characteristics. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;117:429–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Hayreh SS. Retinal vein occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1994;42:109–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Hematologic abnormalities associated with various types of retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240:180–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Hirano Y, Ito T, Nozaki M, Yasukawa T, Sakurai E, Yoshida M, Ogura Y. Intraocular pressure elevation following triamcinolone acetonide administration as related to administration routes. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2009;53:519–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Hirasawa M, Noda K, Shinoda H, Ozawa Y, Tsubota K, Ishida S. Secondary macular hole associated with central retinal vein occlusion treated with corticosteroid injection. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2009;53:267–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Hoeh AE, Ach T, Schaal KB, Scheuerle AF, Dithmar S. Long-term follow-up of OCT-guided bevacizumab treatment of macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247:1635–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Hoeh AE, Ruppenstein M, Ach T, Dithmar S. OCT patterns of macular edema and response to bevacizumab therapy in retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;248:1567–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Horio N, Horiguchi M. Effect of arteriovenous sheathotomy on retinal blood flow and macular edema in patients with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139:739–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Horowitz JR, Rivard A, van der Zee R, Hariawala M, Sheriff DD, Esakof DD, Chaudhry GM, Symes JF, Isner JM. Vascular endothelial growth factor/vascular permeability factor produce nitric oxide-dependent hypotension. Arterioscler Thromb. 1997;17:2793–800.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Houtsmuller AJ, Vermeulen JA, Klompe M, Zahn KJ, Henkes HE, Baarsma GS, Tijssen J. The influence of ticlopidine on the natural course of retinal vein occlusion. Agents Actions Suppl. 1984;15:219–29.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Hsu J, Kaiser RS, Sivalingam A, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) in central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2007;27:1013–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Hvarfner C, Larsson J. Vitrectomy for non-ischaemic macular oedema in retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84:812–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Hwang JC, Gelman SK, Fine HF, Chang S, Del Priore LV. Combined arteriovenous sheathotomy and intraoperative intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010;94:1483–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Imasawa M, Iijima H. Release of vitreomacular traction following retinal photocoagulation in an eye with branch retinal vein occlusion. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29:63–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Iturralde D, Spaide RF, Meyerle CB, Klancnik JM, Yannuzzi LA, Fisher YL, Sorenson J, Slakter JS, Freund KB, Cooney M, Fine HF. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) treatment of macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion: a short-term study. Retina. 2006;26:279–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Jaissle GB, Leitritz M, Gelisken F, Ziemssen F, Bartz-Schmidt KU, Szurman P. One-year results after intravitreal bevacizumab therapy for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247:27–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Jalkh AE, Avila MP, Zakka KA, Trempe CL, Schepens CL. Chronic macular edema in retinal branch vein occlusion: role of laser photocoagulation. Ann Ophthalmol. 1984;16:526–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinoloneacetonide for treatment of intraocular oedematous and neovascular diseases. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83:645–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide: a change in a paradigm. Ophthalmic Res. 2006;38:218–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Jonas JB, Kreissig I, Degenring RF. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide as treatment of macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240:782–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Jonas JB, Kreissig I, Degenring R. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of intraocular proliferative, exudative, and neovascular diseases. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2005;24:587–611.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Jonas JB, Schlichtenbrede F. Visual acuity and intraocular pressure after high-dose intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in selected ocular diseases. Eye. 2008;22:869–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Kachi S, Kobayashi K, Ushida H, Ito Y, Konda M, Terasaki H. Regression of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion during anti-­TNF-alpha therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Ophthalmal. 2010;4:667–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Kahook MY, Schuman JS, Noecker RJ. Intravitreal bevacizumab in a patient with neovascular glaucoma. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2006;37:144–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Kamei M, Misono K, Lewis H. A study of the ability of tissue plasminogen activator to diffuse into the subretinal space after intravitreal injection in rabbits. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128:739–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Karacorlu M, Ozdemir H, Karacorlu SA. Resolution of serous macular detachment after intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide treatment of patients with branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2005;25:856–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Kaushik S, Gupta V, Gupta A, Dogra MR, Singh R. Intractable glaucoma following intravitreal triamcinolone in central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137:758–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Kawaji T, Hirata A, Awai N, et al. Trans-tenon retrobulbar triamcinolone injection for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion remaining after vitrectomy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:540–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Kawaji T, Takano A, Inomata Y, et al. Trans-tenon’s retrobulbar triamcinolone acetonide injection for macular oedema related to branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:81–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Kim JH, Kim JH, Lee YM, AHn EM, Kim KW, Yu YS. Decursin inhibits VEGF-mediated inner blood-retinal barrier breakdown by suppression of VEGF-2 activation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2009;29:1559–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Kinge B, Stordahl PB, Forsaa V, Fossen K, Haugstad M, Helgesen OH, Seland J, Stene-Johansen IS. Efficacy of ranibizumab in patients with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: results from the sham-controlled ROCC study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;150:310–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Kleiner RC, Najarian LV, Schatten S, Jabs DA, Patz A, Kaplan HJ. Vaso-occlusive retinopathy associated with anti-phospholipid antibodies (lupus anticoagulant retinopathy). Ophthalmology. 1989;96:896–904.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Kogure A, Ohkoshi K, Kogure S, Yamaguchi T, Kishi S. Efficacy and retention times of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for macular edema. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2008;52:122–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Kohner EM, Pettit JE, Hamilton AM, Bulpitt CJ, Dollery CT. Streptokinase in central retinal vein occlusion: a controlled clinical trial. Br Med J. 1976;1:550–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Koizumi K, Nishiura M, Yamamoto T, Machida T, Nakamura T, Ouchi M, Kinoshita S. Intentional complete interruption of a retinal vein after vitrectomy might improve the rate of successful chorioretinal venous anastomosis formation in central retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240:787–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Kokame GK. Newly recognized serous macular detachment in retinal vascular disease. Retina. 2006;26:493–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Kondo M, Ito Y, Kachi S, et al. Correspondence. Retina. 2010;30:710–1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Kondo M, Kondo N, Ito Y, Kachi S, Kikuchi M, Yasuma TR, Ota I, Kensaku M, Terasaki H. Intravitreal injection of bevacizumab for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: results after 12 months and multiple regression analysis. Retina. 2009;29:1242–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Krepler K, Ergun E, Sacu S, Richter-Muksch S, Wagner J, Stur M, Wedrich A. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in patients with macular oedema due to branch retinal vein occlusion: a pilot study. Acta Ophthalmol. 2005;83:600–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  146. Kreutzer TC, Alge CS, Wolf AH, Kook D, Burger J, Strau R, Kunze C, Haritoglou C, Kampik A, Priglinger S. Intravitreal bevacizumab for the treatment of macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:351–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Kriechbaum K, Michels S, Prager F, Georgopoulos M, Funk M, Geitzenauer W, Schmidt-Erfurth U. Intravitreal avastin for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a prospective study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:518–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Krill AE, Archer D, Newell FW. Photocoagulation in complications secondary to branch vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1971;85:48–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Krnic-Barrie S, O’Connor CR, Looney SW, Pierangeli SS, Harris EN. A retrospective review of 61 patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. Analysis of factors influencing recurrent thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2101–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Krohne TU, Eter N, Holz FG, Meyer CH. Intraocular pharmacokinetics of bevacizumab after single intravitreal injection in humans. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146:508–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Kube T, Feltgen N, Pache M, Herrmann J, Hansen LL. Angiographic findings in arteriovenous dissection (sheathotomy) for decompression of branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243:334–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Kubota T, Okabe H, Hisatomi T, Yamakiri K, Sakamoto T, Tawara A. Ultrastructure of the trabecular meshwork in secondary glaucoma eyes after intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide. J Glaucoma. 2006;15:117–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Kuhn F, Kiss G, Mester V, Szjarto Z, Kovacs B. Vitrectomy with internal limiting membrane removal for clinically significant macular oedema. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2004;242:402–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Kumagai K, Furukawa M, Ogino N, Larson E, Uemura A. Longer-term visual outcomes after vitrectomy for macular edema with foveal hemorrhage in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2007;27:584–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Kuppermann BD, Blumenkranz MS, Haller JA, Williams GA, Weinberg DV, Chou C, Whitcup SM, for the Dexamethasone DDS Phase II Study Group. Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007; 125:309–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Laatikainen L. Preliminary report on effect of retinal panphotocoagulation on rubeosis iridis and neovascular glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1977;61:278–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Laatikainen L, Kohner EM, Khoury D, Blach RK. Panretinal photocoagulation in central retinal vein occlusion: a randomized controlled clinical study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1977;61:741–53.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Lakhanpal RR, Javaheri M, Ruiz-Garcia H, De Juan Jr E, Humayun MS. Transvitreal limited arteriovenous-crossing manipulation without vitrectomy for complicated branch retinal vein occlusion using 25-gauge instrumentation. Retina. 2005;25:272–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Lakhanpal RR, Javaheri M, Equi RA, Humayun MS. Improvement after transvitreal limited arteriovenous crossing manipulation without vitrectomy for complicated branch retinal vein occlusion using 25 gauge instrumentation. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89:922–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Lam HD, Blumenkranz MS. Treatment of central retinal vein occlusion by vitrectomy with lysis of vitreopapillary and epipapillary adhesions, subretinal peripapillary tissue plasminogen activator injection, and photo­coagulation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134:609–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Lattanzio R, Gimeno AT, Parodi MB, Bandello F. Retinal vein occlusion: current treatment. Ophthal­mologica. 2011;225:135–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Lazo-Langner A, Hawel J, Ageno W, Kovacs MJ. Low molecular weight heparin for the treatment of retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Haematologica. 2010;95:1587–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Lewis H, Schachat AP, Haimann MH, Haller JA, Quinlan P, Von Fricken MA, Fine SL, Murphy RP. Choroidal neovascularization after laser photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:503–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Lim J, Fung AE, Wieland M, Hung D, Wong V. Sustained-release intravitreal liquid drug delivery using triamcinolone acetonide for cystoid macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:1416–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Lin JM, Chiu YT, Hung PT, Tsai YY. Early treatment of severe cystoid macular edema in central ­retinal vein occlusion with posterior sub-tenon triamcinolone acetonide. Retina. 2007;27:180–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Lin Lip P, Belgore F, Blann AD, Hope-Ross MW, Gibson JM, Lip GYH. Plasma VEGF and soluble VEGF receptor FLT-1 in proliferative retinopathy: relationship to endothelial dysfunction and laser treatment. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:2115–9.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Lindblom B. Fluorescein angiography of the iris in the management of eyes with central retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1998;76:188–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Luckie AP, Wroblewski JJ, Hamilton P, Bird AC, Sanders M, Slater N, Green W. A randomised prospective study of outpatient haemodilution for central retinal vein obstruction. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1996;24:223–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Luksch A, Mar N, Tittl M, Ergun E, Findl O, Stur M, Schmetterer L. Evaluation of pulsatile choroidal blood flow in branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240:548–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Luna JD, Chan CC, Derevjanik NL, Mahlow J, Chiu C, Peng B, Tobe T, Campochiaro PA, Vinores SA. Blood-retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown in experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis: comparison with vascular endothelial growth factor, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-1beta-mediated breakdown. J Neurosci Res. 1997;49:268–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Ma J, Yao K, Zhang Z, Tang X. 25-Gauge vitrectomy and triamcinolone acetonide-assisted internal limiting membrane peeling for chronic cystoid macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2008;28:947–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Maar N, Luksch A, Graebe A, et al. Effect of laser photocoagulation on the retinal vessel diameter in branch and macular vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122:987–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Macugen Diabetic Retinopathy Study Group. Changes in retinal neovascularization after pegaptanib (macugen) therapy in diabetic individuals. Ophthalmology. 2006;113:23–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Maeno T, Tano R, Takenaka H, et al. Edaravone (MCI-186) is effective as a free radical scavenger following arteriovenous sheathotomy for treatment of macular oedema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2009;93:1479–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Magargal LE, Brown GC, Augsburger JJ, Donoso LA. Efficacy of panretinal photocoagulation in preventing neovascular glaucoma following ischemic central retinal vein obstruction. Ophthalmology. 1982;89:780–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Mandelcorn MS, Nrusimhadevara RK. Internal limiting membrane peeling for decompression of macular edema in retinal vein occlusion: a report of 14 cases. Retina. 2004;24:348–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Mandelcorn MS, Mandelcorn E, Guan K, Adatia FA. Surgical macular decompression for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Can J Ophthalmol. 2007;42:116–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Mansour AM, Bynoe LA, Welch JC, Pesavento R, Mahendradas P, Ziemssen F, Pai SA. Retinal vascular events after intravitreal bevacizumab. Acta Ophthalmol. 2010;8:730–5.

    Google Scholar 

  179. Mason III J, Feist R, White Jr M, Swanner J, McGwin Jr G, Emond T. Sheathotomy to decompress branch retinal vein occlusion: a matched control study. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:540–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Masood I. Comparative effect of antiplatelet therapy in retinal vein occlusion evaluated by the particle-counting method using light scattering. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:167; author reply 167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Matsumoto Y, Freund KB, Peiretti E, Cooney MJ, Ferrara DC, Yannuzzi LA. Rebound macular edema following bevacizumab (avastin) therapy for retinal venous occlusive disease. Retina. 2007;27:426–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. May DR, Klein ML, Peyman G, Raichand M. Xenon arc panretinal photocoagulation for central retinal vein occlusion: a randomized prospective study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1979;63:725–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. McAllister IL, Vijayasekaran S, Chen SD, Yu DY. Effect of triamcinolone acetonide on vascular endothelial growth factor and occludin levels in branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147:838–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Mester U, Dillinger P. Vitrectomy with arteriovenous decompression and internal limiting membrane dissection in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2002;22:740–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Michels RG, Gass JDM. The natural course of ­retinal branch vein obstruction. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1974;78:166–77.

    Google Scholar 

  186. Miller SD. Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985;99:218–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Morley AMS, Tumuluri K, Meligonis G, Collin JRO. Myopathic ptosis following posterior sub-­tenon’s triamcinolone acetonide injection. Eye. 2009;23:741–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Morse PH. Prospective rationale for and results of argon laser treatment of patients with branch retinal-vein occlusion. Ann Ophthalmol. 1985;17:565–71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Mruthyunjaya P, Wirostko WJ, Chandrashekhar R, Stinnett S, Lai JC, Deramo V, Tang J, Dev S, Postel EA, Connor TB, Fekrat S. Central retinal vein occlusion in patients treated with long-term warfarin sodium (coumadin) for anticoagulation. Retina. 2006;26:285–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Muqit MM, Saidkasimova S, Keating D, Murdoch JR. Long-term study of vascular perfusion effects following arteriovenous sheathotomy for branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol. 2010;88:E57–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Puche N, Glacet A, Mimoun G, Zourdani A, Coscas G, Soubrane G. Intravitreal ranibizumab for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a retrospective study of 34 eyes. Acta Ophthalmol. 2010;88, DOI:10.1111/j.1755-3768.2010.01913.x.

    Google Scholar 

  192. Nauck M, Karakiulakis G, Perruchoud AP, Papakonstaninou E, Roth M. Corticosteroids inhibit the expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor gene in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Eur J Pharmacol. 1998;341:309–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Nehme A, Edelman J. Dexamethasone inhibits high glucose-, TNF-alpha-, and IL-1beta-induced secretion of inflammatory and angiogenic mediators from retinal microvascular pericytes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:2030–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Nishijima K, Ng YS, Zhong L, Bradley J, Schubert W, Jo N, Akita J, Samuelsson SJ, Robinson GS, Adamis AP, Shima DT. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A is a survival factor for retinal neurons and a critical neuroprotectant during the adaptive response to ischemic injury. Am J Pathol. 2007;171:53–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Noma H, Funatsu H, Mimura T, Eguchi S, Hori S. Soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 and inflammatory factors in macular edema with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;152:669–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Noma H, Funatsu H, Mimura T, Harino S, Shimada K. Functional-morphologic correlates in patients with branch retinal vein occlusion and macular edema. Retina. 2011;31:2102–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Noma H, Minamoto A, Funatsu H, Tsukamoto H, Nakano K, Yamashita H, Mishima HK. Intravitreal levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6 are correlated with macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244:309–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Noma H, Funatsu H, Sakata K, Harino S, Mimura T, Hori S. Macular microcirculation in hypertensive patients with and without branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol. 2009;87:638–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Noma H, Funatsu H, Mimura T, Shimada K. Increase of aqueous inflammatory factors in macular edema with branch retinal vein occlusion: a case-control study. J Inflamm. 2010;7:44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Noma H, Funatsu H, Sakata K, Mimura T, Hori S. Macular microcirculation before and after vitrectomy for macular edema with branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;248:443–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Ogata N, Tombran-Tink J, Jo N, Mrazek D, Matsumura M. Upregulation of pigment epithelium-derived factor after laser photocoagulation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:427–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Oh IK, Kim S, Oh J, Huh K. Long-term visual outcome of arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy on branch retinal vein occlusion induced macular edema. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2008;22:1–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Oh JY, Seo JH, Ahn JK, Heo JW, Chung H. Early versus late intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2007;21:18–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Okamoto F, Okamoto Y, Fukuda S, Hiraoka T, Oshika T. Vision-related quality of life and visual function after vitrectomy for various vitreoretinal disorders. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51:744–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Okunuki Y, Usui Y, Katai N, Kezuka T, Takeuchi M, Goto H, Wakabayashi Y. Relation of intraocular concentrations of inflammatory factors and improvement of macular edema after vitrectomy in branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;151:610–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Opremcak EM, Bruce RA. Surgical decompression of branch retinal vein occlusion via arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy: a prospective review of 15 cases. Retina. 1999;19:1–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Orth DH, Patz A. Retinal branch vein occlusion. Surv Ophthalmol. 1978;22:357–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Osterloh MD, Charles S. Surgical decompression of branch retinal vein occlusions. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:1469–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Ota M, Tsujikawa A, Murakami T, Kita M, Miyamoto K, Sakamoto A, Yamaike N, Yoshimura N. Association between integrity of foveal photoreceptor layer and visual acuity in branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91:1644–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Ozkiris A, Evereklioglu C, Erkilic K, Dogan H. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of persistent macular oedema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 2006;20:13–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Ozkiris A, Evereklioglu C, Erkiliτ K, Ilhan O. The efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide on macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2005;15:96–101.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Pai SA, Shetty R, Vijayan PB, Venkatasubramaniam G, Yadav NK, Shetty BK, Babu RB, Narayana KM. Clinical, anatomic, and electrophysiologic evaluation following intravitreal bevacizumab for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;143:601–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Paques M, Vallee JN, Herbreteau D, et al. Super­selective ophthalmic artery fibrinolytic therapy for the treatment of central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:1387–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Park SP, Ahn JK. Changes of aqueous vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6 after intravitreal triamcinolone for branch retinal vein occlusion. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;36:831–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  215. Park SP, Ahn JK. Changes of aqueous vascular endothelial growth factor and pigment epithelium-derived factor following intravitreal bevacizumab for macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;37:490–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  216. Park SP, Ahn JK, Mun GH. Aqueous vascular endothelial growth factor levels are associated with serous macular detachment secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2010;30:281–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Parodi MB, Friberg TR, Pedio M, Fiotti N, Di Stefano G, Ravalico G. Panretinal photocoagulation and photodynamic therapy for anterior segment neovascularization secondary to ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2007;38:94–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Parodi MB, Saviano S, Ravalico G. Grid laser treatment in macular branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1999;237:1024–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  219. Parodi MB, Spasse S, Iacono P, Di Stefano G, Canziani T, Ravalico G. Subthreshold grid laser treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion with micropulse infrared (810 nanometer) diode laser. Ophthalmology. 2006;113:2237–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Parodi MB, Di Stefano G, Ravalico G. Grid laser treatment for exudative retinal detachment secondary to ischemic branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2008;28:97–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Parodi MB, Iacono P, Ravalico G. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide combined with subthreshold grid laser treatment for macular oedema in branch retinal vein occlusion: a pilot study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:1046–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Penfold PL, Wen L, Madigan MC, Gillies MC, King NJC, Provis JM. Triamcinolone acetonide modulates permeability and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression of the ECV304 cell line: implications for macular degeneration. Clin Exp Immunol. 2000;121:458–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Pieramici DJ, Rabena M, Castellarin AA, Nasir M, See R, Norton T, Sanchez A, Risard S, Avery RL. Ranibizumab for the treatment of macular edema associated with perfused central retinal vein occlusions. Ophthalmology. 2008;115:e47–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Pournaras CJ. Retinal oxygen distribution – it’s role in the physiopathology of vasoproliferative microangiopathies. Retina. 1995;15:332–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Prager F, Michels S, Kriechbaum K, Georgopoulos M, Funk M, Geitzenauer W, Polak K, Schmidt-Erfurth U. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: 12-month results of a prospective clinical trial. Br J Ophthalmol. 2009;93:452–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Priglinger SG, Wolf AH, Kreutzer TC, Kook D, Hofer A, Strauss RW, Alge CS, Kunze C, Haritoglou C, Kampik A. Intravitreal bevacizumab injections for treatment of central retinal vein occlusion: six-month results of a prospective trial. Retina. 2007;27:1004–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Rabena MD, Pieramici DJ, Castellarin AA, Nasir MA, Avery RL. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) in the treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina (Philadelphia, Pa). 2007;27:419–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  228. Ramchandran RS, Fekrat S, Stinnett SS, Jaffe GJ. Fluocinolone acetonide sustained drug delivery device for chronic central retinal vein occlusion: 12-month results. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146:285–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Ramezani A, Entezari M, Moradian S, Tabatabaei H, Kadkhodaei S. Intravitreal triamcinolone for acute central retinal vein occlusion; a randomized clinical trial. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244:1601–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Raszewska-Steglinska M, Gozdek P, Cisiecki S, Michalewska Z, Michalewski J, Nawrocki J. Pars plana vitrectomy with ILM peeling for macular edema secondary to retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2009;19:1055–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Rehak J, Rehak M. Branch retinal vein occlusion: pathogenesis, visual prognosis, and treatment modalities. Curr Eye Res. 2008;33:111–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Remky A, Wolf S, Hamid M, Bertram B, Schulte K, Arend O, Reim M. Effect of hemodilution on retinal hemodynamics in retinal branch vein occlusion. Ophthalmologe. 1994;91:288–92.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Ricci F, Missiroli F, Parravano M. Argon laser trabeculoplasty in triamcinolone acetonide induced ­ocular hypertension refractory to maximal medical treatment. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2006;16:756–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Richardson C, Waterman H. Pain relief during panretinal photocoagulation for diabetic retinopathy: a national survey. Eye. 2009;23:2233–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Ring CP, Pearson TC, Sanders MD, et al. Viscosity and retinal vein thrombosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1976;60:397–410.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Risard SM, Pieramici DJ, Rabena MD, Basefsky JC, Avery RL, Castellarin AA, Nasir MA, See RF, Couvillion SS. Intravitreal ranibizumab for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2011;31:1060–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Rodanant N, Thoongsuwan S. Sheathotomy without separation of venule overlying arteriole at occlusion site in uncommon branch retinal vein occlusion. J Med Assoc Thai. 2005;88:S143–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Rogers SL, McIntosh RL, Lim L, Mitchell P, Cheung N, Kowalski JW, Nguyen HP, Wang JJ, Wong TY. Natural history of branch retinal vein occlusion: an evidence-based systematic review. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:1094–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Rosenfeld PJ, Fung AE, Puliafito CA. Optical coherence tomography findings after an intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (avastin) for macular edema from central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2005;36:336–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Roth DB, Chieh J, Spirn MJ, Green SN, Yarian DL, Chaudry NA. Noninfectious endophthalmitis associated with intravitreal triamcinolone injection. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121:1279–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Rouvas A, Petrou P, Ntouraki A, Douvali M, Ladas I, Vergados I. Intravitreal ranibizumab (lucentis) for branch retinal vein occlusion-induced macular edema. Retina. 2010;30:893–902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Russell SR, Blodi CF, Folk JC. Vitrectomy for complicated retinal detachments secondary to branch retinal vein occlusions. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;108:6–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Russo V, Barone A, Conte E, Prascina F, Stella A, Noci ND. Bevacizumab compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for cystoid macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2009;29:511–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Saika S, Tanaka T, Miyamoto T, Ohnishi Y. Surgical posterior vitreous detachment combined with gas/air tamponade for treating macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion: retinal tomography and visual outcome. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001;239:729–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Sakuma T, Mizota A, Inoue J, Tanaka M. Intravitreal injection of autologous plasmin enzyme for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;150:876–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Sarin R. Criteria for deciding cost effectiveness for expensive new anti-cancer agents. J Cancer Res Ther. 2008;4:1–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Schatz H, Madeira D, McDonald HR, Johnson RN. Progressive enlargement of laser scars following grid laser photocoagulation for diffuse diabetic macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109:1549–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Scheppke L, Aguilar E, Gariano RF, et al. Retinal vascular permeability suppression by topical application of a novel VEGF2/src kinase inhibitor in mice and rabbits. J Clin Invest. 2008;118:2337–46.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Schlingemann RO, van Hinsbergh VWM. Role of vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial growth factor in eye disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:501–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, Oden NL, Ip MS, Blodi BA, Hartnett ME, Cohen G, Standard Care Versus Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion Study Investigator Group. Baseline predictors of visual acuity and retinal thickness outcomes in patients with retinal vein occlusion: standard care versus COrticosteroid for REtinal vein occlusion study report 10. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:345–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Shah GK, Sharma S, Fineman MS, Federman J, Brown MM, Brown GC. Arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy for the treatment of macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129:104–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Shah NJ, Shah UN. Long-term effect of early intervention with single intravitreal injection of bevacizumab followed by panretinal and macular grid photocoagulation in central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) with macular edema: a pilot study. Eye. 2011;25:239–44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Shahid H, Hossain P, Amoaku WM. The management of retinal vein occlusions: is interventional ophthalmology the way forward? Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:627–39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Shaikh S, Blumenkranz MS. Transient improvement in visual acuity and macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion accompanied by inflammatory features after pulse steroid and anti-inflammatory therapy. Retina. 2001;21:176–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Shilling JS, Jones CA. Retinal branch vein occlusion. A study of argon laser photocoagulation in the treatment of macular edema. Br J Ophthalmol. 1984; 68:196–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Shimada H, Nakashizuka H, Hattori T, Mori R, Mizutani Y. Transient increase in macular edema following vitrectomy for retinal branch vein occlusion. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29:95–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Shimura M, Nakazawa T, Yasuda K, Kunikata H, Shiono T, Nishida K. Visual prognosis and vitreous cytokine levels after arteriovenous sheathotomy in branch retinal vein occlusion associated with macular edema. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008;86:377–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Smiddy WE. Economic considerations of macular edema therapies. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:1827–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Sohn JH, Song SJ. Arteriovenous sheathotomy for persistent macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2006;20:210–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. Spaide RF, Lee JK, Klancnik JM, Gross NE. Optical coherence tomography of branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2003;23:343–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Spandau U, Wickenhauser A, Rensch F, Jonas J. Intravitreal bevacizumab for branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2007;85:118–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Spandau UHM, Derse M, Schmitz-Valckenberg P, Papoulis C, Jonas J. Dosage dependency of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide as treatment for diabetic macular edema. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89:999–1003.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Spandau UHM, Ihloff AK, Jonas JB. Intravitreal bevacizumab treatment of macular oedema due to central retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84:555–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Stahl A, Agostini H, Hansen LL, Feltgen N. Bevacizumab in retinal vein occlusion-results of a prospective case series. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;245:1429–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Stefansson E. Treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008;86:122–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Stefansson E. Ocular oxygenation and the treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Surv Ophthalmol. 2006;51:364–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Stefansson E, Bek T, Porta M, Larsen N, Kristinsson JK, Agardh E. Screening and prevention of diabetic blindness. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000;78:374–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Stefansson E, Hatchell DL, Fisher BL, Sutherland FS, Machemer R. Panretinal photocoagulation and retinal oxygenation in normal and diabetic cats. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;101:657–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Stefansson E, Novack RL, Hatchell DL. Vitrectomy prevents retinal hypoxia in branch retinal vein occlusion. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990;31:284–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Striph GG, Hart WM, Olk RJ. Modified grid laser photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema-the effect on the central visual field. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:1673–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Tachi N, Hashimoto Y, Ogino N. Vitrectomy for macular edema combined with retinal vein occlusion. Doc Ophthalmol. 1999;97:465–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Tachi N, Ogino N. Vitrectomy for diffuse macular edema in cases of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122:258–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Takahashi K, Kishi S. Serous macular detachment associated with midperipheral branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2004;24:299–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Tameesh MK, Lakhanpal RR, Fujii GY, et al. Retinal vein cannulation with prolonged infusion of tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) for the treatment of experimental retinal vein occlusion in dogs. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138:829–39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Tanaka M, Ninomiya H, Kobayashi Y, Qiu H. Studies on vitrectomy cases associated with complicated branch retinal vein occlusion. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2001;45:397–402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Terui T, Kondo M, Sugita T, et al. Changes in areas of capillary nonperfusion after intravitreal injection of bevacizumab in eyes with branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2011;31:1068–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. The Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984;98:271–81.

    Google Scholar 

  278. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. Natural history and clinical management of central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:486–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  279. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group N Report. A randomized clinical trial of early panretinal photocoagulation for ischemic central vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1995;102:1434–44.

    Google Scholar 

  280. The Score Study Research Group. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with observation to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127:1101–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  281. The SCORE Study Research Group. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with standard care to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: the standard care vs corticosteroid for retinal vein occlusion (SCORE) study report 6. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127:1115–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  282. Thompson JT. What is the role of vitrectomy for macular edema from branch retinal vein occlusion? Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138:1037–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Tolentino MJ, Miller JW, Gragoudas ES, Chatzistefanou K, Ferrara N, Adamis AP. Vascular endothelial growth factor is sufficient to produce iris neovascularization and neovascular glaucoma in a non­human primate. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:964–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  284. Tourville E, Schachat AP. Plasma proteins-possible risk factors for retinal vascular occlusive disease. 2007:424–42.

    Google Scholar 

  285. Tranquart F, Arsene S, Aubert-Urena AS, Desbois I, Audrerie C, Rossazza C, Pourcelot L. Doppler assessment of hemodynamic changes after hemodilution in retinal vein occlusion. J Clin Ultrasound. 1998;26:119–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Trope GE, Lowe GD, McArdle BM, et al. Abnormal blood viscosity and haemostasis in long-standing retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1983;67:137–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Tsujikawa A, Fujihara M, Iwawaki T, Yamamoto K, Kurimoto Y. Triamcinolone acetonide with vitrectomy for treatment of macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2005;25:861–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Udaondo P, Diaz-Lopis M, Garcia-Delpech S, Salom D, Romero FJ. Intravitreal plasmin without vitrectomy for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2011;129:283–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Udaondo P, Garcia-Delpech S, Salom D, Garcia-Pous M, Diaz-Lopis M. Intravitreal injection of autologous plasmin enzyme for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;152:326–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Vannas S, Orma H. Experience of treating retinal venous occlusion with anticoagulant and antisclerosis therapy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1957;58:812–28.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Vannas S, Raitta C. On anticoagulant treatment of central venous. Acta Ophthalmol. 1968;46:730–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Nehemy PG, Schachat AP, Nehemy MB. Secondary ocular hypertension after intravitreal injection of 4 mg of triamcinolone acetonide: incidence and risk factors. Retina. 2008;28:573–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. von Hanno T, Kinge B, Fossen K. Retinal artery occlusion following intravitreal anti-VEGF therapy. Acta Ophthalmol. 2010;88:263–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  294. Weger M, Stanger O, Deutschmann H. Hyperho­mo­cysteinemia and MTHFR C677T genotypes in central retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240:286–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Weger M, Stanger O, Deutschmann H, et al. Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia, but not methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T mutation, as a risk factor in branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:1105–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Wiechens B, Schroder JO, Potzsch B, Rochels R. Primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome and retinal occlusive vasculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:848–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Williamson TH, O’Donnell A. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for cystoid macular edema in nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139:860–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Wilson CA, Berkowitz BA, Sato Y, Ando N, Handa JT, de Juan E. Treatment with intravitreal steroid reduces blood-barrier breakdown due to retinal photocoagulation. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:1155–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Wilson DJ, Finkelstein D, Quigley HA, Green WR. Macular grid photocoagulation. An experimental study on the primate retina. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988; 106:100–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Wolf S, Arend O, Bertram B, Remky A, Schulte K, Wald KJ, Reim M. Hemodilution therapy in central retinal vein occlusion: one-year results of a prospective randomized study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1994;232:33–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Wong IYH. Bevacizumab and triamcinolone for branch vein occlusion. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2010;24:192–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. Wrigstad A, Algvere P. Arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy for branch retinal vein occlusion: report of a case with longterm follow-up. Acta Ophthalmol. 2006;84:699–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  303. Wroblewski JJ, Wells III JA, Adamis AP, Buggage RR, Cunningham Jr ET, Goldbaum M, Guyer DR, Katz B, Altaweel MM. Pegaptanib sodium for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127:374–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Wroblewski JJ, Wellss III JA, Gonzales CR. Pegaptanib sodium for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;149:147–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Wu L, Arevalo F, Roca JA, et al. Comparison of two doses of intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) for treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: results from the Pan-American collaborative retina study group at 6 months of follow-up. Retina. 2008;28:212–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Wu L, Arevalo JF, Berrocal MH, Maia M, Roca JA, Morales-Canton V, Alezzandrini AA, Diaz-LLopis MJ. Comparison of two doses of intravitreal bevacizumab as primary treatment for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: results of the Pan American collaborative retina study group at 24 months. Retina. 2010;30:1002–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Wu Z, Sadda SR. Effects on the contralateral eye after intravitreal bevacizumab and ranibizumab injections: a case report. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2008;37:591–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Wu L, Arevalo JF, Berrocal MH, Maia M, Roca JA, Morales-Cantn V, Alezzandrini AA, Dοaz-Llopis MJ. Comparison of two doses of intravitreal bevacizumab as primary treatment for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusions: results of the Pan American collaborative retina study group at 24 months. Retina (Philadelphia, Pa). 2009;29:1396–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  309. Yamaji H, Shiraga F, Tsuchida Y, Yamamoto Y, Ohtsuki H. Evaluation of arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy for branch retinal vein occlusion by fluorescein videoangiography and image analysis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137:834–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Yamamoto S, Saito W, Yagi F, Takeuchi S, Sato E, Minzuoya S. Vitrectomy with or without arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138:907–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Yamamoto T, Kamei M, Yokoi N, Yasuhara T, Tei M, Kinoshita S. Comparative effect of antiplatelet therapy in retinal vein occlusion evaluated by the particle-counting method using light scattering. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138:809–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Yamasaki M, Noma H, Funatsu H, Minamoto A, Mimura T, Shimada K, Yamashita H, Kiuchi Y. Changes in foveal thickness after vitrectomy for macular edema with branch retinal vein occlusion and intravitreal vascular endothelial growth factor. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29:161–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Yasuda S, Kondo M, Kachi S, et al. Rebound of macular edema after intravitreal bevacizumab therapy in eyes with macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2011;31:1075–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Yeniad B, Ayranci O, Tuncer S, Kir N, Ovali T, Tugal-Tutkun I, Akarcay K. Assessment of anterior chamber inflammation after intravitreal bevacizumab injection in different ocular exudative diseases. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2011;21:156–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  315. Yeshaya A, Treister G. Pars plana vitrectomy for vitreous hemorrhage and retinal vein occlusion. Ann Ophthalmol. 1983;15:615–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Yohendran J, Chauhan D. Erectile dysfunction following intravitreal bevacizumab. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2010;17:281–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Zachary I. Signaling mechanisms mediating vascular protective actions of vascular endothelial growth factor. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2001;280:C1375–86.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Zambarakji HJ, Ghazi-Nouri S, Schadt M, Bunce C, Hykin PG, Charteris DG. Vitrectomy and radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion: effects on visual acuity and macular anatomy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243:397–405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Zhang X, Clark AF, Yorio T. FK506-binding protein 51 regulates nuclear transport of the glucocorticoid receptor beta and glucocorticoid responsiveness. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:1037–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Zumbro DS, Sanders JB. Diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. Retina. 2006;26:571–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Zweng HC, Fritch CD. Central vein obstruction: results of argon laser photocoagulation therapy. Ann Ophthalmol. 1978;10:1355–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA

    David J. Browning MD, PhD

Authors
  1. David J. Browning MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Browning, D.J. (2012). Treatment of Retinal Vein Occlusions. In: Retinal Vein Occlusions. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3439-9_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3439-9_13

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-3438-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-3439-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation